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THE 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION: 

A  Refebence  Book  and  Manual  on  the 
THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF  TEACHING, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF 

Parents,  Teachers,  and  Others; 

BASED  UPON  THE 

CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION. 

—ffi^i       BY 

HENRY  KIDDLE  and  A.  J.  SCHEM. 


NEW  YORK: 
E.    STEIGER   &   CO. 

1881. 


SANTA    BARBARA.    CALIF 


Special  attention  is  invited  to  tlie  following  publications: 

The  Cyclopaedia,  of  Education.  A  Dictiouary  of  Information  for 
the  use  of  Teachers,  School- Officers,  Parents,  and  Others.  Edited  by  Henet 
Kiddle  and  Alexandee  J.  Schem.  One  large  volume,  8vo.  In  Paper 
Cover,  uncut  edges,  $4.00  (also  in  4  divisions  at  $1.00  each);  bound  in 
Cloth  $5.00  —  and  uniform  -with  the  volumes  of  Avpltton's  American 
Cyclopaedia,  in  Library  Leather  $6  00;  in  Half  Morocco  $7.00;  in  Half 
Russia,  extra  gilt  $8.00;  in  Full  Morocco,  or  Full  Russia,  with  gilt  edges 
$10.00. 

The  Year-Book  of  Education  for  1878.  Being  an  Annual  Sup- 
plement to  the  Cyclopa'dia  of  Education.  Edited  by  Hznkx  Iuddle  and 
A.  J.  Schem.     8vo.     Cloth  $2.00. 

for  1879.     Edited  by  Heney  Kiddle  and  A.  J.  Schem.     8vo. 

Cloth  $2.00. 

In  addition  to  editorial  matter  on  the  progress  of  education  in  America  and  foreign 
countries,  each  of  these  two  volumes  contains  a  list  of  Collegiate  and  Private  Educa- 
tional Institutions  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  other  Catalogues  and  Lists  of 
value  and  interest. 

Steiger's  Educational  Directory  for  1878,  Z2i\  pp.  8vo. 
Limp  cloth  $L50. 

Contents:  Lists  of  Colles;iate  and  Private  Educational  Institutions  (United  States, 
British  Dominions,  Germany,  Austria).  —  Catalogues,  etc. 

jj^  A  new  edition  for  1881-82  is  in  preparation. 

Education  and  General  Philology.  A  Classified  Descriptive 
Catalogue  of  American,  British,  German,  French,  and  other  Foreign  Fiibli- 
caiions  on  Education  and  Geyieral  Philology;  together  with  Works  of  Reference. 
Teachers'  Hand-hooks,  etc.,  exclusive  of  Textrbooks.  Edited  by  E.  Steiger, 
48  pp.     8vo.     Paper  10  Cts.  net. 


Copyright,  1881,  hy  E.  Steiger  &  Co. 


■«i  ■  ■■'  "v  Ji. 


NOTICE. 


Desirous  of  securing  for  tlic  JJU'tionary  of  J^diication 

and  Instruction  the  widest  possible  circulation  among 

teachers,  school-ofHcers,  parents,  and  all  progressive  persons, 

the  undersigned  publishers  invite  propositions  from  booksellers, 

agents,   and  others  intending  to  thoroughly  canvass  certain 

limited  territory. 

E.  STEICtEK  &  CO. 


.£if%r---'Xi^t- 


PREFACE. 

The  Gyclopcedia  of  Education,  the  only  publication  of  the  kind  in  the 
English  language,  has  now  been  before  the  public  about  four  years,  during 
which  time  this  work  has  secured  the  unqualified  approval  of  the  most 
eminent  and  experienced  educators  and  official  authorities  both  in  America 
and  abroad.  This  is  all  the  more  satisfactory,  as  much  of  the  commenda- 
tion bestowed  has  resulted  from  a  careful  study  and  constant  use  of  the 
Gyclopcedia  as  an  educational  guide. 

But  while  the  Ci/clopcedia  has  been  thus  cordially  welcomed  and  com- 
mended, a  demand  has  been  expressed,  with  increasing  urgency,  for  a 
smaller  work  of  a  similar  character,  that,  excluding  matter  of  only  occa- 
sional interest  and  value  to  the  professional  teacher,  may  contain  solely 
what  is  of  every-day  need;  and  which  maybe  obtained  at  a  moderate  cost, 
and  yet  supply  a  large  amount  of  information  on  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects, such  as  could  be  obtained  only  with  considerable  difficulty  from  large 
and  expensive  works. 

To  meet  this  demand  the  Dictionary  of  Education  and  Instruction  is 
now  offered  to  teachers  and  all  others  interested  in  education  and  instruc- 
tion, —  school-officers,  parents,  and  the  public  in  general. 

The  Dictionary  is,  in  the  main,  a  compilation  of  the  articles  embraced 
in  only  one  of  the  eight  departments  contained  in  the  Cyclopcp.dia;  namely, 
those  on  the  Theory  of  Education  and  Instruction  (Pedagogy  and  Di- 
dactics) which  are  designed  to  comprehend  a  consideration  of  the  principles 
of  education,  in  each  of  its  departments,  with  practical  suggestions  as  to 
the  best  methods  of  applying  them  both  in  training  and  instruction.  To 
adapt  this  class  of  articles,  thus  reproduced  from  the  Gyclopcedia,  to  the 
wider  use  now  intended,  they  have  been,  as  far  as  seemed  necessary,  ab- 
breviated, extended,  or  otherwise  modified.  In  this  way  it  is  expected 
that  the  Dictionary  will  supply  a  convenient  manual  for  study  and  refer- 
ence not  only  to  teachers  engaged  in  professional  work,  and  in  teachers' 
institutes,  but  likewise  in  normal  schools  in  which  it  is  designed  to  serve 
as  a  text-book  on  Theory  and  Practice. 

To  facilitate  the  use  of  the  Dictionary  for  this  purpose,  all  the  longer 
articles  have  been  supplied  with  indented  subtitles  so  as  to  enable  the  in- 
structor to  conduct  recitations  on  the  subject,  either  by  interrogating  the 
student,  or  by  requiring  full  statements  from  him  on  any  of  the  topics  thus 
indicated. 

The  special  objects  designed  to  be  attained  by  the  publication  of  the 
Dictionary,  more  specifically  stated,  are:  (1)  to  supply  a  brief  compendium 
of  the  theory  and  practice  of  education  in  a  series  of  clear  and  definite 
articles,  alphabetically  arranged  so  as  to  be  easily  referred  to,  or  system- 
atically studied;  (2)  to  encourage  in  this  way  the  study  by  teachers  of  the 


TT 

principles  and  practice  of  their  profession,  thus  giving  to  the  work  of  edu- 
cation a  greater  degree  of  intelligence  and  efficiency;  (3)  to  afford  a  con- 
venient class  manual  of  pedagogy  for  use  in  normal  schools  and  teachers' 
institutes  as  the  basis  of  a  course  of  instruction  in  principles  and  methods, 
not  necessarily  superseding  other  valuable  manuals  differently  arranged, 
but  accompanying  and  strengthening  them;  (4)  to  supply,  at  a  small  cost, 
to  every  teacher  that  portion  of  the  Cydopcpdia  which  is  of  especial  value 
in  practical  education,  reserving  this  larger  work  for  occasional  reference, 
particularly  when  information  regarding  educational  history,  biography, 
and  statistics  is  needed;  and  (5)  to  supply  a  useful  hand-book  to  parents 
in  the  home  education  of  their  children. 

Of  the  character  of  the  articles  contained  in  this  work  but  little  need 
be  here  said,  as  they  have  already  secured  the  highest  encomiums  for  their 
philosophical  and  professional  correctness,  practical  character,  and  literary 
excellence.  This  indeed  was  to  have  been  anticipated,  the  writers  being 
all  practical  educators  of  long  experience  and  distinction  in  their  profession. 
Among  the  contributors  to  the  Cydopcfdin  whose  articles  have  been 
drawn  upon  for  use  in  this  volume  the  following  may  be  especially  men- 
tioned: I'rofessors  Edw.Olney,  of  the  University  of  Michigan;  Franci.s  A. 
March,  of  Lafayette  College;  David  B.  Scott,  of  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York;  K.  II.  Day,  of  the  New  York  Normal  College;  Charles 
'Y.  IIiMEs,  of  Dickinson  College,  and  J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn,  Professor  of 
Education  in  the  College  of  St.  Andrews.  Scotland;  also  James  Do.valdsox, 
LL.  I).,  Rector  of  the  Edinburgh  High  School;  Thomas  F.  Harrison  and 
Norman  A.  Cai.kins,  Assistant  Superintendents  of  Schools  in  the  City  of 
New  York;  and  also  the  editors,  Henry  Kiddle,  for  many  years  chief 
Superintendent  of  the  schools  of  the  City,  and  for  several  years  principal  of 
the  Normal  School  in  the  city  of  New  York;  and  Professor  A.  J.  Sciiem, 
also  one  of  the  Assistant  Superintendents  of  the  New  York  City  Schools, 
and  long  and  favorably  known  for  his  extensive  scholarship,  literary 
attainments,  and  numerous  encyclopaedic,  statistical,  and  other  works.* 

Special  attention  is  invited  to  the  valuable  list  of  educational  works  for 
professional  study  and  reference  prepared  especially  for  the  Dictionary  by 
\V.  H.  Payne,  I\I.  A.,  Professor  of  the  Science  and  the  Art  of  Teaching 
in  the  University  of  Michigan. 

The  hope  is  here  expressed  that  this  book  will  be  favorably  received, 
and  that  it  will  prove  the  instrument  of  much  good  in  elevating  the  teacher's 
profession,  and  in  disseminating  correct  information  in  regard  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  education  and  instruction. 

New  York,  July  1st,  1881. 
•  Prot  ScHEM  deceased  May  '22d,  while  this  work  was  passing  through  the  press. 


ABACUS  (Gr.  d/?af,  a  slab  or  board),  a  piece  of  school  apparatus, 
used  to  facilitate  the  teaching  of  children  to  count,  and  perform  other 
simple  arithmetical  operations.  Various  forms  of  the  abacus  are  employed 
as  counting  or  adding  machines. 

A-B-C  BOOK,  a  primer,  or  little  book  used  to  learn  the  alphabet  and 
its  simplest  combinations,  with  the  most  rudimental  lessons  in  reading. 
(See  Horn-Book.) 

A-B-C  METHOD.     See  Alphabet  Method. 

ABECEDARIAN.  This  word,  formed  from  the  names  of  the  first 
four  letters  of  the  alphabet,  is  generally  used  to  denote  a  pupil  who  has  not 
advanced  beyond  the  most  elementary  stage  of  school  or  book  education, 
that  is,  who  is  learning  A  B  C,  or  the  alphabet.  The  name  has  been  some- 
times applied  to  one  engaged  in  teaching  the  alphabet.  (See  Reading,  and 
Word  AIethod.) 

A-B-C  SHOOTERS  (Germ.  ^ 5 C^-zSc/mfeew),  pupils  of  those  scholastic 
vagrants  who,  during  a  certain  period  of  the  middle  ages,  and  even  later, 
used  to  wander  through  many  parts  of  Germany,  giving  instruction  to 
such  pupils  as  they  could  pick  up,  who  accompanied  them  in  their  jour- 
neyings.  These  pupils  were  often  obliged  to  purloin  food,  fowls,  etc.,  to 
supply  their  masters'  wants,  and  hence  were  called,  partly  in  derision  of 
their  elementary  knowledge,  A-B-C  Shooters  —  shoot,  in  their  parlance, 
being  the  slang  word  for  steal. 

ABSENTEEISM  is  opposed  to  regularity  in  the  attendance  of  pu- 
pils belonging  to  a  school.  The  number  of  school  sessions  from  which  a 
pupil  was  absent,  as  compared  with  the  number  at  which  he  was 
found  pft^sent,  during  any  particular  period,  gives  the  absenteeisn-.  of 
the  pupil  for  that  period.  The  average  daily  attendance  of  pu- 
pils divided  by  the  average  daily  enrollment  —  the  "average  number  be- 
longing" —  shows  the  percentage  of  attendance;  and  this  subtracted  from 
100  gives,  of  course,  the  percentage  of  absenteeism.  Within  certain  limits, 
this  is  a  criterion  of  efficiency  of  management  and  instruction,  since 
teachers  who  interest  their  pupils  necessarily  secure  a  more  re- 
eOidencv  S^^**"^  attendance  than  those  who  fail  in  this  respect.  Where  the 
•  ^'    basis  for  computing  the  degree  of  absenteeism  is  the  average 

enrollment,  and  where  regularity  of  attendance  is  made  a  test  of  efficient 
management,  teachers  will  be  more  careful  to  keep  the  number  of  pupils 
on  the  rolls  as  little  as  possible  above  the  average  attendance.  Hence,  to 
render  this  test  reliable,  a  uniform  rule  should  be  followed  in  the 
rule's"^  discharging  of  pupils  for  non-attendance.  Such  a  rule  has  been 
adopted  in  many  cities  of  the  Union,  any  pupil's  name  being  in- 
variably dropped  from  the  roll  after  a  certain  number  of  days  of  absence, 
however  caused.  This  is  based  on  the  principle  that  irregular  attendance 
is  not  only  of  no  profit  to  the  pupil  concerned,  but  a  positive  injury  to 
the  other  pupils  of  the  school  or  class,  and  is,  moreover,  a  serious  hindrance 
and  embarrassment  to  the  teacher. 


2  ABSTRACT  AXD  CON CRETP]  — ACADEMY 

ABSTRACT  AND  CONCRETE.  Tlicso  terms  have  a  very  im- 
portant application  in  many  departments  of  practical  education.  Abstract 
.  has  reference  to  general  ideas,  or  the  ideas  of  qualities  considered 
DefinUion.  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^j^^  things  to  which  they  belong;  cona-ete,  to  those 
which  are  only  conceived  as  belonging  to  particular  objects  or  substances. 
Thus,  if  we  speak  of  a  man,  a  horse,  a  tree,  etc.,  we  \ise  abstract  or  general 
ideas;  for  we  are  not  thinking  of  any  particular  object  of  the  class,  but 
only  of  the  assemblage  of  qualities  or  characteristics  that  especially  belong 
to  all  the  members  of  the  cla-ss.  But  when  we  mention  such  names  as 
Cicero,  Washington,  John  Smith,  etc.,  we  have  in  our  mind  a  conception 
of  the  characteristics  that  distinguish  those  persons  from  all  other  men. 
Thus,  the  expressions  five  pounds,  a  true  statement ,  an  ho)iest  man 
represent  concrete  ideas;  the  words  ,^re,  //v</7^  7iio«es(v,  abstract  ones. 

.  The  immature  minds  of  young  children  employ  to  a  great 

^}sti)iction  g^^gjj^   concrete   ideas,    and   hence  the    instruction   addres.sed 
^""thnf^   especially  to  them  should  deal  principally  with  these.     As  the 
mind  advances,  it  becomes  more  and   more  occupied  with  ab- 
stract conceptions,  which  constitute  the  material  for  all  the  higher  forms 
of  thought  and  ratiocination. 

ACADEMY  (Gr.  'AKaSyfiia  or  'AKaS/j/iaa)  was  originally  the  name  of 
„  .  .  a  pleasure  ground  near  Athens,  and  was  said  to  be  so  called 

Origin.       ^^^^^  Academus,  a  local  hero  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.    Its 
shady  walks  became  a  favorite  resort  for  Plato:  and,  as  he  was  accustomed 
to  lecture  here  to  his  pupils  and  friends,  the  school  of  philosophers  which 
was  founded  by  him  was  called  the  Academic  School,  or  niere- 
Academy    jy  ^^^^  Academy.     During  the  middle  ages  the  term  was  bub 
of  Plato.     jj^|.j^   ^^^^  ^^^    learned  institutions ;    but,  after  the  revival  of 
classical  studies  in  the    15th  century,  it  again  became    frequent.      In  a 
wider  sense,  it  was  sometimes  ai)plied  to  higher  in.stitutions  of  learning  in 
general.     Gradually,  however,  its  use  was,  in  most    countries, 
■^"'f  restricted  to  special  schools,  aa  academies  of  mining,  of  com- 

applted.  j^(;rce,  of  forestry,  of  fine  arts,  and,  especially,  of  music.  In 
England  and  the  United  States,  the  national  high  schools  for  the  edu- 
catfon  of  military  and  naval  officers  are  called  academies.  Thus,  I'^ngland 
has  the  Naval  Academy  at  Portsmouth,  and  the  Royal  Military  Academy 
at  Woolwich;  and  the  United  States,  the  Military  Academy  at  \Vest 
Point,  and  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis.  In  the  United  States,  the 
name  has  also  been  assumed  by  a  large  number  of  secondary  schools,  which 
are  designed  to  prepare  their  pupils  for  colleges,  or  to  impart  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  common  and  higher  branches  of  education. 

The  T\a.mG  academi/ is  also  employed  to  designate  an  a,sso- 
AppUedto  ciation  of  learned  men  for  the  advancement  of  science  and 
learned  ^^^  Some  of  these  associations  are  of  an  entirely  private 
societies.  (,j-,,^racter,  others  have  been  founded  by  the  state.  The  first 
academy  of  this  kind  was  the  Museum  of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  which  was 
founded  by  Ptolemy  Soter.  'i'he  academies  constituting  the  Institute 
of  France  are  among  the  most  important  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  The 
Acndemie  franf;aise  is  the  highest  authority  upon  every  thing  relating 
to  the  niceties  of  the  French  language,  to  grammar,  and  the  publication  of 
the  French  classics.     The  Academic  des  inscriptions  et  belles  leitres  em- 


ACCOMPLISHMENTS  —  AFFECTATION  3 

braces  among  the  objects  of  its  attention  comparative  philology.  Like  the 
French  Institute,  the  academies  in  the  capitals  of  Spain,  Portugal,  Sweden, 
Russia,  and  other  countries,  have  gradually  become  great  national  centers 
for  the  promotion  of  science  and  art;  but  no  such  centralization  has  been 
effected  in  Italy,  Germany,  England,  or  the  United  States.  In  the  United 
States  of  America,  there  are  also  a  number  of  learned  societies  to  which 
the  name  academy,  in  the  sense  used  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  has 
been  applied. 

ACCOMPLISHMENTS,  This  term,  as  contrasted  with  culture, 
refers  to  those  educational  acquirements  which  fit  a  person  for  certain 
special  activities,  while  culture  has  reference  to  the  general  improvement 
of  the  character  or  mental  faculties.  Hence  the  expression  "external 
accomplishments,"  or  "ornamental  accomphshments, "  such  as  skill  in 
foreign  languages,  music,  drawing,  painting,  dancing,  etc.  (See  Culture.) 
ACQUISITION.  The  acquisition  of  knowledge  must  be,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  the  scope  of  every  process  of  teaching.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
primary  object;  but,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  education,  it  is  generally  se- 
condary, the  educative  value  of  the  process  taking  precedence  of  the  prac- 
tical importance  of  the  knowledge  communicated.  The  acquisition  of  new 
ideas  must  always,  more  or  less,  improve  the  mind  by  affording  additional 
material  for  the  exercise  of  its  various  faculties;  but,  in  education,  what 
particular  faculties  are  concerned  in  the  study  of  any  subject  or  branch  of 
knowledge,  is  a  matter  of  paramount  importance,  and  therefore  should 
never  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  teacher.  Where  this  is  disregarded,  in- 
struction is  apt  to  degenerate  into  mere  rote-teaching;  and  the  teacher 
will  often  rest  satisfied  when  his  pupil  can  repeat  the  formulfe  of  knowl- 
edge, without  evincing  the  acquisition  of  new  ideas,  on  which  alone  the 
improvement  of  the  mind  depends. 

ACROAMATIC  METHOD  (Ci\  aKpoa/naTiKSc,  to  be  heard,  designed 
for  hearing  only),  a  name  originally  applied  to  the  esoteric  teachings  of 
Aristotle  and  other  Greek  philosophers,  to  designate  such  as  were  confined 
to  their  immediate  hearers,  and  not  committed  to  writing.  Later,  the 
terra  has  been  applied  to  a  system  of  instruction  in  which  the  teacher 
speaks  and  the  pupil  only  listens.  A  method  of  this  kind,  of  course,  pre- 
supposes scholars  of  a  certain  maturity  of  age  and  of  considerable  progress 
in  intellectual  culture.     It  forms  the  basis  of  the  lecture  system. 

AFFECTATION,  as  opposed  to  what  is  real,  genuine,  and  natural, 
is  carefully  to  be  guarded  against  in  the  education  of  the  young.  In  cer- 
tain peculiarities  of  character,  there  is  a  proneness  to  the  formation  of 
habits  of  affectation  in  manners  and  speech.  This  tendency,  however, 
rarely  shows  itself  at  an  early  age.  Children  generally  yield  to  their  na- 
tural impulses,  and  do  not  assume  or  leign  what  they  do  not  feel,  or,  to 
use  a  common  expression,  "put  on  airs".  Their  mode  of  training,  however, 
may  tend  to  this,  particularly  if  they  are  forced  to  assume  an  unnatural 
mode  of  expression  in  phraseology  or  pronunciation,  in  the  attempt  to 
make  them  excessively  precise  in  such  matters.  Some  .styles  of  reading 
and  elocution  may  lead  to  this  characteristic;  and  hence  the  importance 
of  adopting  methods  that,  in  all  respects,  correspond  to  the  prevailing 
usage.  The  standard  of  the  educator  should,  in  every  respect,  comport 
with  the  ease,   grace,   simplicity,  and    beauty    that   belong  to    what  is 


4  AGE 

natural;  and  every  tendency  to  the  contrary,  in  liis  pupils,  should  bo 
promptly  and  sternly  repressed,  l^cke  (in  Tlioitghts  concerning  Educa- 
iion)  says:  "Plain  and  rough  nature  left  to  itself,  is  much  better  than  an 
artificial  ungracefulness,  and  such  studied  ways  of  being  ill-fashioned. 
The  want  of  an  accomplishment,  or  some  defect  in  our  behavior,  coming 
short  of  the  utmost  gracefulness,  often  scapes  observation;  but  affecta- 
tion in  any  part  of  our  carriage,  is  lighting  up  a  candle  to  our  defects, 
antl  never  fails  to  make  us  to  be  taken  notice  of.  either  as  wanting  sense 
or  wanting  sincerity." 

AGE,  in  Education,     'llie  life  of  man  has  been  variously  divided 
into  periods,  or  ages.     Thus  Pythagoras  assumed  four,  Solon  and  Macro- 
^    .   ,        l)ius  ten,  different  ages,  while  otliers  have  preferred  a  division 
,  ,.   ■        into  five,  SIX,  seven,  or  eight.     AVith  regard  to  the  education  of 
man,  one  great  turning-point  stands  forth  so  conspicuously,  that 
teachers  at  all  times  have  chosen  it  as  a  broad  line  of  demarcation,  into 
whatever  number  of  periods  they  liave  thought  it  proper  to  divide  human 
life.     This  turning-point  in  life  is  the  period  when  man  passes  from  the 
age  of  youth  into  that  of  virility.     The  physical  development  at 
It) rung-     ^j^jg  ^jj^^^  ji,^  become  complete;  in  social  life  both  sexes  have 
life  attained  majority;  and  the  education  of  the  young  man  or  wo- 

man for  the  career  that  has  been  selected,  is,  in  the  main,  con- 
eluded.  Up  to  this  time,  the  education  of  man  is  conducted  by  others, 
cliiefly  parents  and  teachers;  henceforward,  he  is  expected  to  educate 
himself,  and  to  assume  the  education  of  others. 

During  the  period  of  life  when  man  is  dependent  upon  others  for  his 
education,  three  different  ages  are  broadly  distinguished.  —  childhood,  boy- 
DfT  •'  t  ^^'^^^  *^^  girlhood,  and  youth.  'I'hese  are  marked,  in  the  physical 
ones  development  of  the  body,  by  the  shedding  of  teeth,  the  entrance 
of  puberty,  and  the  setting  in  of  virility.  The  process  of  mental 
development  in  these  three  ages  is  as  different  as  the  physical  basis  ;  and, 
accordingly,  each  of  them  demands  a  peculiar  pedagogical  and  didactical 
treatment. 

Childhood,  which  embraces  the  first  seven  years  of  life,  is  characterized 
by  the  rapid  growth  and  development  of  the  oi-gans  of  the  body.  At  the 
ri  :i,n  ,.,i  ^^^  ^^  seven  a  child  weighs  about  six  times  as  much  as  at  its 
l)irth,  and  it  lias  attained  one  half  of  the  stature,  and  about  one 
tliird  or  one  fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  grown  man.  The  mind  is,  during 
this  period,  more  receptive  tlian  self-active  ;  the  only  manifestations  of 
self-activity  being  found  in  the  efforts  to  retain  and  arrange  the  impres- 
sions whicli  have  been  received.  All  pedagogical  influence  upon  the  pupil 
in  this  age  can  be  only  of  a  preparatory  cliaracter.  The  body  must  be 
guarded  against  injuries,  and  must  have  opportunities  for  a  vigorous  and 
manifold  development.  The  mind  mu.st  be  i)reserved  from  debasing, 
weakening,  or  over-exciting  influences,  and  must  be  kej^t  open  for  any  thing 
that  is  conducive  to  the  development  of  its  faculties  ;  and,  in  order  not  to 
become  sated  and  confused,  it  must  learn  to  distinguish  what  is  important 
from  what  is  unimportant.  As  the  child  is  thoroughly  dependent  upon 
the  educator  and  unable  to  direct  its  own  exertions,  it  should  be  ma<le  to 
understand  as  clearly  as  possible,  that  any  op]:)osition  of  its  own  will  to 
that  of  its  educators  can  be  followed  by  only  evil  consequences.    It  should, 


AGE  5 

therefore,  be  taught  obedience,  but  not  obedience  through  fear,  for  fear 
has  a  repressive  influence  upon  the  development  of  the  mental  faculties, 
but  an  obedience  springing  from  confidence  in  the  superior  wisdom  and 
experience  of  the  teacher,  and  from  love  produced  by  his  kindness.  The 
natural  educators  of  the  child  are  the  parents,  especially  the  mother;  but, 
toward  the  close  of  this  age,  systematic  teaching  by  a  professional  teacher 
begins.  Legislation  in  regard  to  the  school  age  differs  considerably  in 
different  countries.  In  some,  children  are  sent  to  the  public  schools  when 
they  are  four  years  of  age  ;  in  others,  not  until  they  are  seven.  Of  course, 
instruction  at  such  an  age  must  be  limited  to  the  most  elementary  rudi- 
ments, such  as  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic.  The  method  should  be 
thoroughly  adapted  to  the  mental  condition  of  the  child,  and  modern  edu- 
cators are  agreed  in  recognizing  the  importance  of  object  teaching  for  the 
first  stages  of  a  child's  instruction.  A  novel  mode  of  instruction,  specially 
intended  as  introductory  to  the  regular  primary  school,  is  the  kindergarten, 
founded  by  Froebel.  'I'he  astonishing  rapidity  with  which  it  has  spread 
through  all  the  countries  of  the  civilized  world,  and  found  admission  into 
educational  systems  otherwise  radically  at  variance,  seems  to  prove  it  to  be 
a  great  improvement  in  elementary  education.     (8ce  Kindeecjartex.) 

Boyhood  or  girlhood  embraces  the  time  from  the  7th  to  the  14th  year 

of  age.  In  the  development  of  the  body,  this  age  is  characterized 

Boyhood     ^j  ^j^^  appearance  of  the   permanent   teeth,  by  the  completed 

irlhood      growth  of  the  brain,  and  by  the  first  consciousness  of  sexual 

difference.  Boys  and  girls  long  for  the  free  and  frequent  exercise 
of  their  muscular  systems.  At  the  beginning  of  this  age,  girls  like  to  take 
an  active  part  in  the  plays  of  the  boys  ;  but  they  soon  show  a  preference  for 
more  quiet  occupations  and  less  publicity ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  boys 
manifest  an  increased  interest  in  noisy  and  wild  sports.  It  is  among  the 
prime  duties  of  the  educators  of  this  age,  to  keep  the  development  of  the 
natural  desires  and  aspirations  of  the  two  sexes  within  the  right  channels. 
The  minds  of  boys  and  girls  afford  many  proofs  of  independent  thought 
and  activity.  The  company  of  adults  is  not  sought  for  by  them  as  eagerly 
as  before,  but  they  feel  entire  satisfaction  in  the  society  of  children  of  their 
own  age.  They  think,  as  yet,  little  of  the  realities  of  life  and  of  their  future 
careers;  but  their  plays  give  more  evidence,  than  before,  of  plan,  serious 
thought,  and  perseverance,  and  generally  indicate  the  faculties  with  which 
they  have  been  most  strongly  endowed  ;  each  child,  in  this  way,  foreboding 
to  some  extent  its  futiire  career.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  edu- 
cator should  not  only  understand  the  peculiar  nature  of  this  age  in  general, 
but  that  he  should  thoroughly  know  the  character  of  each  individual ;  for 
the  faults  which  are  peculiar  to  this  age  are  best  overcome  in  individual 
cases,  if  the  educator  knows  how  to  make  the  right  kind  of  appeal  to  those 
good  qualities  of  his  pupils  which  are  most  strongly  developed.  In  arranging 
a  course  of  instruction  for  this  age,  it  must  be  specially  remembered  that 
the  minds  of  boys  and  girls  are  predominantly  receptive.  The  memory 
readily  receives  and  faithfully  retains  impressions ;  and  this,  therefore,  is 
the  right  time  for  learning  a  foreign  language  and  geographical  and  histori- 
cal facts.  The  independence  of  mind  peculiar  to  this  age  shows  itself  at 
the  same  time  in  the  growth  of  imagination,  which  awakens  in  the  boy  a 
lively  interest  in  all  that  is  great  and  extraordinary  in  history.     On  many 


6  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 

questions  relating  to  the  education  proper  for  this  age,  educators  still  differ. 
Prominent  among  these  questions,  are,  whether  the  two  sexes  should  be 
educated  separately  or  conjointly,  to  what  extent  the  same  course  of  instruc- 
tion should  be  prescribed  for  both,  whether  special  studies  should  be  begun 
at  tliis  age,  or  whether  the  entire  course  should  be  obligatory  upon  all  the 
children  of  a  school. 

The  age  of  ^louth  extends  from  the  beginning  of  puberty  to  the  com- 
"plete  development  of  sexuality,  or  from  the  fourteenth  to 
-^""^^"  about  the  twenty-first  year  of  age.  At  this  time  the  growth  of 
the  body  is  completed ;  young  men  and  women  become  aware  of  their 
special  duties  of  life  and  of  the  difference  in  the  careers  upon  which  they 
are  respectively  to  enter.  'J'he  time  of  study  is  drawing  to  its  close;  the 
entrance  into  active  life  is  at  hand.  Among  the  lower  classes  of  society, 
this  transition  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  this  age ;  and  the  only  increase  of 
knowledge  that  is  accessible  to  most  persons  of  these  classes  must  be  de- 
rived from  evening  schools,  public  lectures,  and  reading ;  while  those  of 
the  wealthier  classes,  and  all  who  wish  to  fit  themselves  for  any  of  the 
learned  professions,  now  enter  upon  the  special  studies  of  those  professions, 
or  finish  the  general  studies  of  the  preceding  age.  Toward  the  close  of 
this  period,  if  not  earlier,  the  preparation  for  entering  public  Life  is  com- 
pleted, or  an  actual  entrance  into  life  begins. 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES.     It  is  only  within  the  last  four- 
teen years  that  any  general  and  systematic  effort  has  been  made 
Congres-    j^  ^jjg  United  States  to  furnish  facilities  for  acquiring  a  thorough 
sionalpro-  ggjentiflc  r^^^\  practical  education  in  agriculture.     In  18C2,  Con- 
visions.    g^ggg  g^^^g  ^^  ^j^g  several  states  and  territories  land  scrip  to  the 
amount  of  30,000  acres  for  each  senator  and  representative,  on  the  con- 
dition that  each  state  or  territory,  claiming  the  benefit  of  this  act,  should, 
within  five  years  hom  its  passage,  "provide  not  less  than  one  college,  which 
should  receive  for  its  endowment,  support,  and  maintenance  the  interest 
of  all  moneys  derived  from  the  sale  of  the  aforesaid  scrip  or  lands. "      It 
was  further  rcipiired  that  '•  the  leading  object"  of  these  colleges  "  should  be, 
without  excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  sttidies,  and  including  mili- 
tary tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts,  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal  and  practical  educa- 
tion of  the  industrial  classes,  in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life." 
Up  to  186"),  the  agricultural  college  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  was  the  only  one  in 
the  Unit<j(l  States  in  which  students  conld  pursue  a  college  course 
Colleries      arranged  and  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  those  who  might  de- 
founded.     ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  years,  to  engage  in  agriculture.     Since  that  time, 
some  colleges  have  been  organized  —  a  large  proportion  of  them  from  parts 
of  universities  —  which  are  largely  devoted  "to  teaching  such  branches  of 
learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts."  As  a  general 
rule,  no  pains  have  been  spared  by  these  colleges  to  furnish  all 
Orgnnizn-  ^.j^g  facilities  for  pursuing  a  college  course  at  the  least  possible  ex- 
eauimZlit  PC"So.     Manual  labor  is  required  in  many  of  the  colleges ;  in 
qu  pm  .1  .  Q^j^^j^^  j^_  jj^  optional.   Students'  labor  is  paid  for  at  various  rates. 
Liberal  state  appropriations  have  been  made,  which  have  been  largely  ex- 
pended in  erecting  buildings.     The  amount  of  private  donations  is  very 
large.     The  late  Ezra  Cornell  gave  $700,000  to  the  university  that  bears 


ALGEBRA  7 

his  name,  and  the  total  amount  of  private  donations  to  this  single  insti- 
tution is  not  less  than  $1,400,000,  of  which  the  colleges  of  agriculture  and 
the  mechanic  arts  have  received  their  due  proportion.  The  equipment  in- 
cludes laboratories,  workshops,  etc.,  serving,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  illus- 
trate and  teach  all  the  subjects  relating  to  agriculture,  as  follows:  mechan- 
ical laboratories  or  workshops,  furnished  with  tools  for  working  in  iron  and 
wood,  and  sometimes  with  engines,  planers,  turning-lathes,  drilling-machines, 
saws,  and  other  necessary  but  less  expensive  tools;  physical  laboratories, 
most  of  them  furnished  with  apparatus  for  illustrating  the  subjects  of 
mechanics,  electricity,  magnetism,  heat,  acoustics,  and  optics.  Nearly  aU 
these  colleges  have  well  equipped  chemical  laboratories ;  and  several  of 
them  furnish  excellent  facilities  for  instruction  in  chemistry.  There  are 
also  anatomical,  geological,  and  botanical  laboratories  equipped  for  student 
practice  in  these  institutions,  and  several  have  greenhouses;  also  draft- 
ing-rooms with  the  necessary  tables  and  models  for  illustrating  the  sub- 
jects taught.  A  large  amount  of  practice  in  drawing  is,  moreover,  re- 
quired in  several  of  the  branches  related  to  agriculture.  Free-hand 
drawing,  also,  has  been  to  some  extent  introduced.  Sevei'al  colleges 
have  large  collections  of  models  of  farm  implements  and  machinery; 
engravings,  photographs,  charts,  and  drawings;  together  with  numerous 
specimens  of  grains,  grasses,  and  other  plants;  geological  and  mineralog- 
ical  specimens ;  collections  of  insects  and  skeletons  of  domestic  and  other 
animals ;  all  constituting  what  might  be  called  an  agricultural  museum, 
though  usually  kept  in  separate  rooms  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  For 
a  fuller  treatment  of  this  subject,  see  Cydopcedia  of  Education. 

ALGEBRA  (Arab.  a/-jrt6r ,  reduction  of  parts  to  a  whole).  For  a 
general  consideration  of  the  purposes  for  which  this  study  should  be 
pursued,  and  its  proper  place  and  relative  proportion  of  time  in  the  curric- 
ulum, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  Mathematics.  It  is  the  pur- 
pose of  this  article  to  indicate  some  of  the  principles  to  be  kept  in  view, 
and  the  methods  to  be  pursued  in  teaching  algebra. 

The  Literal  Notation.  —  While  this  notation  is  not  peculiar  to  algebra, 
but  is  the  characteristic  language  of  mathematics,  the  student  usually  en- 
counters  it  for  the  first  time  when  he  enters  upon  this  study.  No 
^  1^  ^      satisfactory  progress  can  be  made  in  any  of  the  higher  branches 
sneciallv     *-*^  mathematics,  as    General   Geometry,   Calculus,  Mechanics, 
studied.     Astronomy,  etc.,  without  a  good  knowledge  of  the  literal  nota- 
tion. By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  difficulty  which  the  ordinary 
student  finds  in  his  study  of  algebra  proper  —  the  science  of  the  equation 
—  and  in  his  more  advanced  study  of  mathematics,  grows  out  of  an  imper- 
fect knowledge  of  the  notation.     These  are  facts  well  known  to  all  ex- 
perienced teachers.  Nevertheless,  it  is  no  unfrequent  thing  to  hear  a  teacher 
say  of  a  pupil :     "He  is  quite  good  in  algebra,  but  cannot  get  along  very 
well  with  literal  examples !"     Nothing  could  be  more  absurd.     It  comes 
from  mistaking  the  importance  and  fundamental  character  of  this  notation. 
It  is  of  the  first  importance  that,  at  the  outset,  a  clear  conception  be  gained 
of  the  nature  of  this  notation,  and  that,  in  all  the  course,  no  method  nor 
language  be  used  which  will  do  violence  to  these  principles.  Thus,  that  the 
letters  a,  b,  x,  3/,  etc. ,  as  used  in  mathematics,  represent  pure  number,  or 
quantity,  is  to  be  amply  illustrated  in  the  first  lessons,  and  care  is  to  be 


8  ALGEBRA 

taken  that  no  vicious  conception  insinuate  itself.    To  say  that,  as  5  apples 

and  6  apples  make  11  apples,  so  5a  and  6a  make  llnr,  is  to  teach 
lUustra-  error.  If  this  comparison  teaches  auy  thing,  it  is  that  the  letter 
ttons.  ^  .^  ^^^  Q^^  ^^^  j^^^^^  simply  gives  to  the  nmnbers  5,  6,  and  11  a 
concrete  significance,  as  does  the  word  apples  in  the  first  instance;  but 
this  is  erroneous.  'J'he  true  conception  of  the  use  of  a,  to  represent  a  num- 
ber, may  be  given  in  this  way:  As  5  times  7  and  6  times  7  make  11  times 
7,  so  5  times  auy  number  and  6  times  the  same  number  make  11  times 
that  number.  Now,  let  «  represent  any  number  whatever;  then  5  times 
a  and  6  times  a  make  11  times  a.  The  two  thoughts  to  be  impressed  are, 
that  the  letter  represents  some  number,  and  that  it  is  immaterial  what 
number  it  is,  so  long  as  it  represents  the  same  number  in  all  cases  in  the 
same  problem.  Again,  the  genius  of  the  literal  notation  requires  that  no 
conception  be  taken  of  a  letter  as  a  representative  of  number,  which  is  not 

equally  applicable  to  fractional  and  integral  numbers.  Thus 
Aj^lication  ^^g  ^ciay  not  say  that  a  fraction  which  has  a  numerator  a  and  a 
ojrac  ions.  jguQujinator  b,  represents  a  of  the  b  equal  parts  of  a  quantity, 
ornumber,  as  we  affirm  that  J  represents  3  of  the  4  equal  parts;  for  this 
conception  of  a  fraction  requires  that  the  denominator  be  integral;  other- 
wise, if  b  represent  a  mixed  number,  as  4|,  we  have  the  absurdity  of 
attempting  to  conceive  a  quantity  as  divided  into  4j  equal  parts.  The  only 
conception  of  a  fraction,  sufficiently  broad  to  comport  with  the  nature  of 
the  literal  notation,  is  that  it  is  an  indicated  operation  in  division ;  and 
all  operations  in  fractions  should  be  demonstrated  from  this  detiiiition. 

So  also  to  read  x"^  ".c  to  the  mtli  power",  when  ?«  is  not  necessarily  an 
integer,  is  to  violate  this  fundamental  characteristic  of  the  notation.     In 

like  manner,  to  use  the  expressions  greatest  common  divisor  and 
Other      ^g^^^  common  multiple,  when  literal  quantities  are  under  con- 

'  sideration,  is  an  absurdity,  and  moreover  fails  to  give  any  indi- 
cation of  the  idea  which  should  l)e  conveyed.  For  example,  we  cannot 
affirm  that  2a.-c^  —  2b.xii  is  the  greatest  common  divisor  of  'ia'.c'  —  2d^b.y?y 
-\-2nb'-x-y'-  —  2P.vi/^  and  4(ib\v\i/ * —  2ah\r^y^  —  2b'x)/';  since  a.v —  by  is  a 
divisor  of  these  polynomials,  and  whether  2a.v'  —  2i.r;/ is  greater  or  less 
than  a.r  —  6y  cannot  be  affirmed  unless  the  relative  values  of  the  letters 
are  known.  To  illustrate,  2rt,c' — 26.rj/=^2.c  ((u;  —  by).  Now  suppose 
a  ^  500,  6  =  10,  ;/  =  2,  and  x  =  ^\- ;  then  ax  —  by  =  .30,  and  2a.x-  —  2bxy 
=  6.  Moreover,  it  is  not  a  question  as  to  the  value  of  the  divisor  that  is 
involved;  it  is  a  question  as  to  the  degree.  Hence,  what  we  wish  to 
affirm  is  that  2a.c"  —  2b.ry  ia  the  highest  common  divisor  of  these  poly- 
nomials, with  respect  to  x. 

In  order  that  the  pupil  may  get  an  adequate  conception  of  the  nature 
of  the  hteral  notation,  it  is  well  to  keep  prominently  before  his  mind  the 

fact  that  the  fundamental  operations  of  addition,  subtraction, 

Literal     niultiplication,  and  division,  whether  of  integers  or  fractions, 

notations    ^^^  various  transformations  and  reductions  of  fractions,  as  well 

as  involution  and  evolution,  are  exactly  the  .same  as  the  corre- 
sponding ones  with  wliich  he  is  already  familiar  in  arithmetic,  except  as 
they  are  modified  by  the  difference  between  the  literal  and  the  Arabic  no- 
tations. Thus,  the  pupil  will  be  led  to  observe  that  the  orders  of  the 
Arabic  notation  are  analogous  to  the  terms  of  a  polynomial  in  the  hteral 


ALGEBRxi  9 

notation,  and  that  the  process  of  "carryhig"  m  the  Arabic  addition,  etc., 
has  no  analogue  in  the  literal,  simply  because  there  is  no  established  rela- 
tion between  the  terms  iji  the  latter.  Again,  he  will  see  that,  in  both  cases, 
addition  is  the  process  of  combining  several  quantities,  so  that  the  result 
shall  express  the  aggregate  value  in  the  fewest  terms  consistent  with  the 
notation.  This  being  the  conception  of  addition,  he  will  see  that  for  the 
same  i-eason  that  we  say,  in  the  Arabic  notation,  that  the  sum  of  8  and  T 
is  5  rind  10  (fif-teen),  instead  of  8  and  7,  we  say,  in  the  literal  notation, 
that  ti'.e  sum  of  oax  and  Ga.c  is  llax.  In  fact,  it  is  quite  conceivable  that 
the  pu]3il,  who  understands  the  common  or  Arabic  arithmetic,  can  master 
the  literal  arithmetic  for  himself,  after  he  has  fairly  learned  the  laws  of  the 
new  notation. 

Positive  and  Negative.  —  Although  the  signs  +  and  — ,  even  as  indi- 
cating the  affections  positive  and  negative,  are  not  confined  to  the  literal 

notation,  the  pupil  first  comes  to  their  regular  use  in  thisconnec- 
7/  T.  /  tion,  and  finds  this  new  element  of  the  notation  one  of  his  most 
^  ^^tlie  ^  vexatious  stumbling-blocks.  'J'hus,  that  the  sum  of  bay  and  — 
notation       ^^^^  should  be  3^///,  and  their  difference  Tat/,  and  that  '-minus 

multiplied  by  minus  should  give  plus,"  as  we  are  wont  to  say, 
often  seems  absurd  to  the  learner.  Yet  even  here  he  may  be  taught  to  find 
analogies  in  the  teachings  of  the  common  arithmetic,  which  will  at  least 
partially  remove  the  difficulty.  When  he  comes  to  understand,  that  attrib- 
uting to  numbers  the  affection  positive  or  negative  gives  to  them  a  sort 
of  concrete  significance,  and  allies  them  in  some  sort  to  denominate  numbers, 
he  may  at  least  nee,  that  5at/  and  2a>/  do  not  necessarily  make  lay  ;  for,  if 
one  were  feet  and  the  other  yards,  the  sum  would  not  be  7 ay  of  either.  If, 
then,  he  comes  to  understand  tliat  the  fundamental  idea  of  this  notation 
is,  that  the  terms  positive  and  negative  indicate  simply  such  opposition  in 
kind,  in  the  numbers  to  which  they  are  applied,  as  makes  one  tend  to 
destroy  or  counterbalance  the  other,  he  is  prepared  to  see  that  the  sum  of 
bay  and  —  2ay  is  3((y ;  since,  when  put  together,  the  —  2ay.  by  its  oppo- 
sition of  nature,  destroys  2ay  of  the  ."w/y.  The  ordinary  illustrations  in 
which  forces  acting  in  opposite  directions,  motion  in  opposite  dii-ections. 
amounts  of  property  and  of  debts,  etc. ,  are  characterized  as  positive  and 
negative,  are  helpful,  if  made  to  set  in  clearer  light  the  fact,  that  this 
distinction  is  simply  in  regard  to  the  way  in  which  the  numbera  are  applied, 
and  not  leally  in  regard  to  the  numbers  themselves. 

So,  also,  in  multiplication,  the  three  principles,  (1)  that  the  product  is 

like  the  mmtiplicand;  (2)  that  a  nmltiplier  must  be  conceived  as  essentially 

abstract  when  the  operation  is  performed;  and  (3)  that  the  sign 

.°""^'^^^'f.  of  the  multiplier  shows  what  is  to  be  done  with  the   product 

calioii       when  obtained,  remove  all  the  difficulty,  and  make  it  seem  no 

more  absurd  that  "minus  multiplied  by  minus  gives  plus,"  than 

that  "plus  multiplied  by  plus  gives  plus" :  in  fact,  exactly  the  same  course 

of  argument  is  required  to  establish  the  one  conclusion  as  to  establish  the 

other.     When  we  analyze  the  operation  which  we  call  multiplying  +  a  by 

+  b,  we  say  "-(-  a.  taken  b  times  gives  -f  ab.     Now  the  sign  -}-  before  the 

multiplier  indicates  that  the  product  is  to  be  taken  additively,  that  is, 

united  to  other  quantities  by  its  own  sign."    So  when  we  multiply  — a  by 

—  b,  we  say  •' —  a  multiplied  by  b  (a  mere  number)  gives  —  ab  (a  product 


10  .  ALGEBRA 

like  the  multiplicand).  But  the  —  sign  before  the  multiplier  indicates 
that  this  product  is  to  be  taken  subtractively,  /.  e.  united  with  other  quan- 
tities by  a  sign  opposite  to  its  own."  This,  however,  is  not  the  place  to 
develop  the  theory  of  positive  and  negative  quantities  ;  our  only  purpose 
here  is  to  show  that  the  whole  grows  out  of^a  kind  of  concrete  or  denomi- 
nate significance  which  is  thus  put  upon  the  numbers,  and  which  bears 
some  analogy  to  familiar  principles  of  common  arithmetic. 

Exponents.  — One  other  feature  of"  the  mathematical  notation  comes 
into  prominence  now  for  the  first  time,  and  needs  to  be  clearly  compre- 
hended: it  is  the  theory  of  exponents.  Here,  as  well  as  elsewhere, 
^rn^^ir  s-  ^*  ^^  important  to  guard  against  false  impressions  at  the  start. 
poblted  out.  '^^^^^  ^'^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  exponent  indicates  a  power  is  often  so  fixed 
in  the  pupils  mind  at  first,  that  he  never  afterwards  rids  himself 
of  the  impression.  To  avoid  this,  it  is  well  to  have  the  pupil  learn  at  the 
outset  that  not  all  exponents  indicate  the  same  thing ;  thus,  while  some 
indicate  powers,  others  indicate  roots,  others  roots  of  powers,  and  others 
still  the  reciprocals  of  the  latter.  1"oo  much  pains  can  scarcely  be  taken  to 
strip  this  matter  of  all  obscurity,  and  allow  no  fog  to  gather  around  it. 
Nothing  in  algebra  gives  the  young  learner  so  much  difficulty  as  radicals, 
and  all  because  he  is  not  thoroughly  taught  the  notation.  Perhaps,  but 
few,  even  of  those  wlio  have  attained  considerable  proficiency  in  mathe- 
matics, have  really  set  clearly  before  their  own  minds  the  fact  that  if  used 
as  an  exponent  is  not  a  fraction- in  the  same  sense  as  I  in  its  ordinary  use; 
and  hence  that  the  demonstration  that  ^  =  5,  as  given  concerning  common 
fractions,  by  no  means  proves  that  the  exponent  ^.  equals  the  exponent  j. 
Other  principles  bearing  on  this  important  subject  will  be  developed  under 
the  following  head. 

Melliods  qf^ Demonstration.  —  It  requires  no  argument  to  convince  any 
one  that,  in  establishing  the  working  features,  if  we  may  so  speak,  of  a 
science,  it  is  important  that  they  be  exhil)ited  as  direct  out- 
Llcmentary  growths  of  fundamental  notions.  'I  luis.  in  giving  a  child  his  first 
'^^^'^Tohe"^  conception  of  a  common  fraction,  no  intelligent  teacher  would 
addressed.  ^^^  ^^^^  concejjtion  of  a  fraction  as  an  indicated  operation  in  di- 
vision, and  attempt  to  build  up  the  theory  of  common  fractions  on 
that  notion.  It  may  be  elegant  and  logical,  and  when  we  come  to  the  literal 
notation  it  is  essential ;  but  it  is  not  sutfiricntly  radical  for  the  tyro.  It  is 
not  natural,  but  scientific  rather.  So  in  the  literal  notation,  the  projjosition 
that  the  product  0/  the  square  roots  of  two  numbers  is  equal  to  the  square 
root  of  their  j^^'odud,  may  be  demonstrated  thus  :  Let  s/a  X  \/b  =p, 
whence  ab  =  p- ;  and,  extracting  the  square  root  of  each  member  we  have 
y/ab  =  p.  Hence  ^a  X  \^b  =  ^  V/i.  Now,  this  is  concise  and  mathe- 
matically elegant ;  but  it  gives  the  pupil  no  insight  whatever  into  "the 
reason  why."  "What  is  needed  here  is,  that  the  pupil  be  enabled  to  see 
that  this  proposition  grows  out  of  the  nature  of  a  square  root  as  one  of  the 
two  equal  factors  of  a  number;  i.e.,  he  needs  to  see  its  connection  with 
fundamental  conceptions.  Thus  ^ab  means  that  the  product  ab  is  to  be 
resolved  into  two  equal  factors,  and  that  one  of  them  is  to  be  taken.  Now, 
if  we  resolve  a  into  two  equal  factors,  as  s,/a  and  v/a,  and  b  into  two  equal 
factors,  as  v  b  and  ^/b,  ab  will  be  resolved  into  four  factors  which  can  be 
arranged  iu  two  equal  groups,  thus  s/a  ^  b  X  \/«  s/  b.     Hence  >/a  s/b  is 


ALGEBRA  11 

the  square  root  of  ab  because  it  is  oue  of  the  two  equal  factors  into  which 
ab  can  be  conceived  to  be  resolved.  In  this  manner,  all  operations  in  radi- 
cals may  be  seen  to  be  based  upon  the  most  elementary  principles  of  factor- 
ing. Again,  as  another  illustration  of  this  vicious  use  of  the  equation  in 
demonstrating  elementary  theorems,  let  us  consider  the  common  theorems 
concerning  the  transformations  of  a  proportion.  As  usually  demonstrated, 
by  transforming  the  proportion  into  an  equation,  and  vice  versa,  the  real 
reason  why  the  proposed  transformation  does  not  vitiate  the  proportion, 
is  not  brought  to  light  at  all.  For  example,  suppose  we  are  to  prove  that, 
IffourqaautUies  are  inpropoi^iion,  they  are  in  proportion  by  composition, 
i.  e.,  a  a  :  b  :  :  c  :  d,  then  a  :  a  -^  b  :  :  c  :  c  ^  d.  The  common  method  is 
to  pass  from  the  given  proportion  to  the  equation  be  =  ad,  then  add  ac  to 
each  member,  obtaining  ac  -\-bc=^aG-\-  ad,  or  c  {a-\-b)  =^a  (c  -|-  d),  and 
then  to  transform  this  equation  into  the  proportion  a  :  a-\-b  :  :  c  '.  c -\-  d. 
No  doubt,  this  is  concise  and  elegant,  but  the  real  reason  why  the  trans- 
formation does  not  destroy  the  proportion,  viz.,  that  both  ratios  have  been 
divided  by  the  same  number,  is  not  even  suggested  by  this  demonstration. 
On  the  other  hand,  let  the  following  demonstration  be  used,  and  the 
pupil  not  only  sees  exactly  why  the  transformation  does  not  destroy  the 
proportion,  but  at  every  step  has  his  attention  held  closely  to  the  fun- 
damental characteristics  of  a  proportion.  Let  the  ratio  a  :  6  be  r;  hence 
as  a  proportion  is  an  equality  of  ratios,  the  ratio  c  :  d  is  r ;  and  we 
have  a-i-b:=^r,  and  c-f- (/;=?',  or  a  =  br,  and  c  =  dr.  Substituting 
these  values  of  a  and  c  in  the  terms  of  the  proportion  wliich  are 
changed  by  the  transformation,  we  have  a  -}-  b  =br  -{-  b,  or  b  {r-\-l), 
and  c  -\-  d  =^ dr  -\-  d,  ov  d  {r  -\- 1);  whence  we  see  that  a  :a-\-b  :  :  c  :  c-\-d 
is  deduced  from  a  :  b  :  :  c  :  d  hj  multiplying  both  consequents  by  ?•  -j- 1 
(the  ratio  +  1),  which  does  not  destroy  the  equality  of  the  ratios  con- 
stituting the  proportion,  since  it  divides  both  by  the  same  number. 
Moreover,  this  method  of  substituting  for  the  antecedent  of  each  ratio 
the  consequent  multiplied  by  the  ratio,  enables  us  to  demonstrate  all 
propositions  concerning  the  transformation  of  a  proportion  by  one  uni- 
form method,  which  method  in  all  cases  clearly  reveals  the  reason  why 
the  proportion  is  not  destroyed. 

This  choice  of  a  line  of  argument  which  shall  be  applicable  to 
Special  g^jj  entire  class  of  propositions  is  of  no  slight  importance  in  con- 
^"  ".^  structing  a  mathematical  course.  It  enables  a  student  to  learn 
method  '^^^^^  greater  facility  and  satisfaction  the  demonstrations,  and 
fixes  them  more  firmly  in  his  memory;  while  it  also  gives 
broader  and  more  scientific  views  of  truth,  by  thus  classifying,  and  bring- 
ing into  one  line  of  thought,  numerous  truths  which  would  otherwise  be 
seen  only  as  so  many  isolated  facts. 

Range  of  Topics  to  be  Embraced.  —  We  may  distinguish  three  dif- 
ferent classes  of  pupils,  who  require  as  many  different  courses  in  this 
study.    First,  there  is  a  very  large  number  of  our  youth  who,  if 
different    ^^  *^®  ^^^^'  ^^'^^^  V^^  beyond  the  grammar  school,  or,  if  in  the 
pupils,     country,  never  have  any  other  school  advantages  than  those  fur- 
nished by  the  common  or  rural  district  school.     Nevertheless, 
many  of  these  will  receive  much  greater  profit  from  spending  half  a  year, 
or  a  year,  in  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  algebra  (and  even 


12  ALGEBRA 

of  geometry)  than  they  usually  do  in  studying  arithmetic.  (See  Arith- 
metic. )  For  this  class  the  proper  range  of  topics  is:  a  clear  exposition  of 
the  nature  of  the  liternl  notation;  the  fundamental  rules,  and  fractions, 
involving  only  the  simpler  forms  of  expression,  and  excluding  such  abstruse 
subjects  as  the  more  difficult  theorems  on  factoring,  the  theory  of  lowest 
common  multiple  and  highest  common  divisor;  simple  equations  involving 
one,  two,  and  three  unknown  quantities;  ratio  and  propoi'tion;  an  ele- 
mentary treatment  of  the  subject  of  radicals  with  special  attention  given 
to  their  nature  as  growing  out  of  the  simplest  principles  of  factoring;  pure 
and  affected  quadratics  involving  one  or  two  unknown  quantities.  The 
second  class  comprises  what  may  be  called  high  school  pupils.  For  this 
grade  the  range  of  topics  need  not  be  much  widened,  but  the  study  of 
each  should  be  extended  and  deepened.  This  will  be  the  case  especially 
as  regards  the  theory  of  exponents,  positive  and  negative  quantities,  rad- 
icals, equations  involving  radicals,  and  simultaneous  equations,  especially 
those  of  the  second  degree.  To  this  should  be  added  the  arithmetical  and 
geometrical  progressions,  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  binomial  formula, 
and  logarithms,  and  a  somewhat  extended  treatment  of  the  application  of 
algebra  to  the  business  rules  of  arithmetic.  A  wide  acquaintance 
Ti  Id  be  ^^^''^  *^^^  results  attained  in  our  high  schools  in  all  parts  of  the 
omitted  country,  and  an  observation  extending  over  more  than  twenty 
years,  satisfy  the  writer  that  time  spent  in  these  schools  in 
attempts  to  master  the  theory  of  imleterminate  co-efficients,  the  demonstra- 
tion of  the  binomial  and  logaritlimic  formidas,  or  upon  the  higher  equa- 
tions, series,  etc.,  is,  if  not  a  total  loss,  at  least  an  absorption  of  time  which 
might  be  much  more  profitably  employed  on  other  subjects,  such  as,  for 
example,  history,  literature,  or  the  elements  of  the  natural  sciences.  The 
course  taken  by  such  pupils  gives  them  no  occasion  to  use  any  of  these 
principles  of  the  higher  algebra;  and  the  mastery  of  them  which  they  can 
attain  in  any  reasonable  amount  of  time  is  quite  too  imperfect  to  subserve 
the  ends  of  good  mental  discipline.  This  second  course  is  entirely  adequate 
to  fit  a  student  for  admission  into  any  American  college  or  university.  The 
third  course  is  what  we  may  call  the  college  course. 

Ctass-Room  Work.  —  It  is  probably  unnecessary  to  say,  that  a  careful 
and  thorough  study  of  text-books  should  be  the  foundation  of  our  class- 
room work  on  this  subject ;  nevertheless,  so  much  is  said,  at  the 
Utility  of    present  time,  in  disparagement  of  "hearing  recitations"  instead 
^  '    ° '  ■  of  "teaching,"  that  it  may  be  well  to  remark  that,  if  our  schools 
succeed  in  inspiring  their  pupils  with  a  love  of  books,  and  in  teaching  how 
to  use  them,  they  accomplish  in  this  a  greater  good  than  even  in  the  mere 
knowledge  which  they  may  impart.     iTooks  are  the  great  store-house  of 
knowledge,  and  he  who  has  the  habit  of  using  them  intelligently  has  the 
key  to  all  human  knowledge.     But  it  is  not  to  be  denied,  that  there  is  an 
important  service  to  be  rendered  by  the  living  teacher,  albeit  that  service, 
especially  in  this  department,  is  not  formal  lecturing  on  the  principles  of 
the  science.     With  younger  pupils,  the  true  teacher  will  often  preface  a 
subject  with  a  familiar  talk  designed  to  prepare  them  for  an  in- 
Smmples  teUjgen^;  study  of  the  lesson  to  be  assigned,  to  awaken  an  interest 
Ussons     ^"  ^^"  ^^  *°  enable  them  to  surmount  some  particular  difficulty. 
For  example,  suppose  a  class  of  young  pupils  are  to  have  their 


ALGEBRA  13 

first  lesson  in  subtraction  in  algebra;  a  preliminary  talk  like  the  following 
will  be  exceedingly  helpful,  perhaps  necessary,  to  an  intelligent  preparation 
of  the  lesson.  Observe  that,  in  order  to  benefit  the  class,  the  teacher  must 
confine  his  illustrations  rigidly  to  the  essential  points  on  which  the  lesson  is 
based.  In  this  case  these  are  (1)  Adding  a  negative  quantity  destroys  an 
equal  positive  quantity;  {2)  Adding  a  positive  quantity  destroys  an  equal 
negative  quantity;  (3)  As  the  minuend  is  the  sum  of  the  subtrahend  and 
remainder,  if  the  subtrahend  is  destroyed  from  out  the  minuend,  the  re- 
mainder is  left.  Now,  in  what  order  shall  these  three  principles  be  pre- 
sented ?  Doubtless  the  scientific  order  is  that  just  given ;  but,  in  such  an 
introduction  to  the  subject  as  we  are  considering,  it  may  be  best  to  jjresent 
the  3d  first ;  since  this  is  a  truth  already  familiar,  and  hence  affords  a  con- 
necting link  with  previous  knowledge.  Moreover,  this  being  already  before 
the  mind  as  a  statement  of  what  is  to  be  done,  the  1st  and  2d  will  follow 
in  a  natural  order  as  an  answer  to  the  question  how  the  purpose  is  ac- 
complished. To  present  the  3d  principle,  the  teacher  may  place  on  the 
blackboard  some  simple  example  in  subtraction  as : 

125  He  wUl  then  question  the  class  thus:  What  is  the  12.5  called? 
"tf  What  the  74?  What  the  51?  How  much  more  than  74  is  125? 
If  we  add  74  and  25,  what  is  the  sum?  Of  what  then  is  the  minuend 
composed?  What  is  51  -J-  74?  If  we  destroy  the  74,  what  remains?  If 
in  any  case  we  can  destroy  the  subtrahend  from  out  the  minuend,  what 
will  remain  ?  Having  brought  this  idea  clearly  before  the  mind,  the  teacher 
will  proceed  to  the  1st  principle.  If  —  3«6  be  added  to  lab  how  much  of 
the  lab  will  it  destroy?  (Here  again  we  proceed  from  a  fundamental  con- 
ception —  the  natui'e  of  quantities  as  positive  and  negative,  thus  deducing 
the  new  from  the  old.)  Repeat  such  illustrations  of  this  principle  as  may 
have  been  given  in  addition.  If  several  boys  are  urging  a  sled  forward  by 
"tab  pounds,  and  the  strength  of  another  boy  amounting  to  Zab  pounds  is 
added,  but  exerted  in  an  opposite  direction,  what  now  is  the  sum  of  their 
efforts?  What  kind  of  a  quantity  do  we  call  the  3ai ?  [Negative.]  Why? 
How  much  of  the  +  lab  does  —  'iab  destroy  when  we  add  it?  If  then  we 
wish  to  destroy  -|-  3n6  from  -j-  'lab,  how  may  we  do  it  ?  Proceeding  then 
to  the  2d  principle,  it  may  bs  asked,  how  much  is  Qay  —  2ay  1  If  now  we 
add  -\-  lay  to  ^ay  —  2ay,  which  is  4tay,  what  does  it  become?  What  does 
the  -f-  lay  destroy  ?  What  then  is  the  effect  of  adding  a  positive  quantity? 
Such  introductory  elucidations  should  always  be  held  closely  to  the  plan  of 

development  which  the  pupil  is  to  study,  and  should  be  made  to 
Teacher  andthrow  light  upon  it.  It  is  a  common  and  very  pernicious  thing 
e  -  ooK  £^j,  tgachers  to  attempt  to  teach  in  one  line  of  development, 
'  ^  '  while  the  text-book  in  the  pupil's  hands  gives  quite  another.  In 
most  cases  of  this  kind,  either  the  teacher "s  effort  or  the  text-book  is  useless, 
or  probably  worse  —  they  tend  to  confuse  each  other.  Such  teaching 
should  culminate  in  the  very  language  of  the  text ;  and  it  is  desirable  that 
this  language  be  read  from  the  book  by  the  pupil,  as  the  conclusion  of  the 
teaching.     Moreover,  there  is  great  danger  of  overdoing  this  kind  of  work. 

Whenever  it  is  practicable,  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  pre- 
Tiit  P^^^  ^^^  lesson  from  the  book.     A  competent  teacher  will  find 

sufficient  opportunity  for  "teaching"  after  the  pupils  have  gath- 
ered all  they  can  from  the  book.  Another  important  service  to  be  rendered 


14  ALGEBRA 

by  the  living  teacher  is  to  emphasize  central  truths,  and  hold  the  pupils  to 
a  constant  review  of  them.  So  also  it  is  his  duty  to  keep  in  prominence 
the  outlines  of  the  subject,  that  the  pupil  may  always  know  just  where  he 
is  at  work  and  in  what  relation  to  other  parts  of  the  subject  that  which  he 
is  studying  stiinds.  All  delinitions,  statements  of  princijjles,  and  theorems 
should  be  thoroughly  memorized  by  the  pupil  and  recited  again  and  again. 
In  entering  upun  a  new  subject,  as  soon  as  these  can  be  intelligently  learn- 
ed, they  shoultl  be  recited  in  a  most  careful  and  formal  manner :  and,  in 
connection  with  subsequent  demonstrations  and  solutions,  they  shoidd  be 
called  up  and  repeated.  Thus,  suppose  a  high  school  class  entering  upon 
the  subject  of  equalions.  Such  a  class  may  be  supposed  to  be  able  to  grasp 
the  meaning  of  the  definitions  without  preliminary  aid  from  the  teacher, 
save  in  special  cases.  The  first  lesson  will  probably  contain  a  dozen  or 
more  definitions,  with  a  preposition  or  two ;  and  the  first  work  should  be 
the  recitation  of  these  by  the  pupils  individually,  without  any  questions 
or  suggestions  from  the  teacher.  Illustrations  should  also  be  required  of 
the  pupils ;  but  neither  illustrations  nor  demonstrations  should  be  memo- 
rized, although  great  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  a  good  style  of  expres- 
sion, modeled  on  that  of  the  text.  To  this  first  recitation  on  a  new  sub- 
ject all  the  class  should  give  the  strictest  attention ;  and  every  point  in  it 
should  be  brought  out,  at  least  once  in  the  hearing  of  every  pupil.  In  the 
course  of  subsequent  recitations  in  the  same  general  subject,  individuals 
will  be  questioned  on  the  principles  thus  developed.  For  example,  what 
algebra  is  will  have  been  brought  clearly  to  view  in  this  first  recitation ; 
but  when  a  pupil  has  stated  and  solved  ^ome  problem,  and  has  given  his 
explanation  of  the  solution  from  the  blackboard,  the  teacher  my  ask,  Why 
do  you  say  you  have  solved  this  problem  by  algebra?  The  answer  will  be. 
Because  1  have  u.sed  the  equation  as  an  instrument  with  which  to  effect  the 
solution.  Can  you  solve  this  problem  witliout  the  use  of  an  equation? 
What  do  you  call  such  a  solution  ?  AVhat  is  algebra  ?  Again,  suppose  the 
solution  has  involved  the  reduction  of  such  an  equation  as  the  following: 

2.C \  =  ^  (3.C  —  1)  4-  ^  (.r  +  1).    In  the  first  place  the  pupil  will  solve 

the  example  and  give  a  good  logical  account  of  the  solution ;  but  the 
teacher  will  make  it  tlie  occasion  for  reviewing  certain  definitions  and 
principles  with  this  particular  student,  in  such  a  practical  connection. 
'J'hus  he  will  ask,  What  is  your  first  equation?  AVhat  is  your  last?  [.c=2.] 
Do  you  look  upon  the.se  as  one  and  the  same  equation,  or  as  different 
equations?  In  how  many  different  forms  have  you  written  your  given 
equation?  AVhat  general  term  do  you  apply  to  tliese  processes  of  chang- 
ing the  form  of  an  equation?  Wh^t  is  (rdnxformation?  Similarly,  every 
princii)le  and  definition  will  be  reviewed  again  and  again  in  such  ])ractical 
connections.  lUit  mere  statements  of  processes  should  not  be  allowed  to 
pass  for  expositions  of  principles.  To  illustrate,  the  pupil  has  placed  tho 
following  work  upon  the  board : 

Tor  —  28.K  -f  14  =  238 
Ix"-  —  28.r  =  224 

a^  —  4x  =  32 
a;'_4.c-|-4  =  3G 
^  x—2= +  6 

a"  =  2  4-  G  =8,  or  —4. 


ALGEBRA  15 

He  is  then  called  upon  to  explain  his  w^ork.  Something  like  the 
following  is  what  we  hear  in  the  majority  of  our  best  schools: 

"Given  Ix'  — ■  28,c  + 14  =  238,  to  find  the  value  of  x. 

"Transposing,   I  have  Ix"  — ■  28£C  =  224. 

"Dividing  by  7,  «■  —  4,'c  =  32. 

"Completing  the  square,  x'  —  4a;  +  4^36. 

"Extracting  the  square  root,  x  —  2^  +  6. 

"Transposing,  :c  =  2  +  6  z=  8,  and  — 4." 

And  the  pupil  turns  to  his  instructor  in  the  fuU  consciousness  of 
duty  nobly  done.  The  fact  is,  aU  that  he  has  said  is  useless,  nay,  worse 
than  useless.  He  has  simply  intimated  what  processes  he  has  performed. 
That  he  could  solve  the  problem  was  sufficiently  apparent  from  his  work. 
There  was  no  need  that  he  should  tell  us  what  he  had  doue,  when  he  had 
performed  the  work  before  our  eyes.  ^Miat  is  wanted  is  a  clear  and 
orderly  exposition  of  the  reason  why  he  takes  every  step.  This  involves 
two  points,  since  he  is  to  show  (1)  that  the  step  taken  tends  to  the  desired 
end,  that  is,  the  freeing  of  the  unknown  quantity  from  its  connections 
with  known  quantities  so  as  finally  to  make  it  stand  alone  as  one  member 
of  the  equation;  and  (2)  that  the  step  does  not  destroy  the  equation.*) 
Something  like  the  following  should  be  the  style  of  explanation:  "  Given 
Ix"^ — 28.C  +  14^238,  to  find  the  value  of  x.  In  order  to  do  this,  I  wish  so 
to  transform  the  equation  that,  in  the  end,  x  sliall  stand  alone,  constitut- 
ing one  member  of  the  equation,  while  a  known  quantity  constitutes  the 
other  member.  Hence  1  transpose  the  known  quantity  14  to  the  second 
member.  This  I  do  by  subtracting  14  from  each  member,  which  may  be 
done  without  destroying  the  equation  (or  the  equality  of  the  members) 
since,  if  the  same  quantity  be  subtracted  from  equals,  the  remainders  are 
equal.  I  thus  obtain  Ix  —  28.r  =224.  I  now  observe  that  the  first 
term  of  the  first  member  contains  the  square  of  x,  while  the  second 
contains  the  first  power.  I  wish  to  obtain  an  equation  which  shall 
contain  only  the  first  power  of  x.  In  order  to  do  this.  I  make  the  first 
term  a  perfect  power  by  dividing  each  member  of  the  eqiiation  by  7, 
which  does  not  destroy  the  equality,  since  equals  divided  by  equals  give 
equal  quotients,  and  I  have  x"  —  4x  =  32.  Now,  observing  that 
x' — 4.C  constitutes  the  first  two  terms  of  the  square  of  a  binomial  of  which 
the  square  of  half  the  co-efficient  of  x,  or  4,  is  the  third  term,  I  add  4  to 
this  member  to  make  it  a  complete  square,  and  also  add  4  to  the  second 
member  to  preserve  the  equality  of  the  members,  and  have  .r — 4a;-|-4=36. 
Extracting  the  square  root  oi  x' — 4.r+4, 1  have  x — 2,  an  expression  which 
contains  only  the  first  power  of  x;  but  to  preserve  the  equaHty,  I  also 
extract  the  square  root  of  the  second  member,  obtaining  x — 2=  4-6.  Fi- 
nally, transposing  — 2  to  the  second  member  by  adding  2  to  each  member, 
which  does  not  destroy  the  equation,  I  have  x=8,  or  — 4."  If  it  is  de- 
sired to  abbreviate  the  explanation,  it  is  far  better  to  make  it  simply  an 
outline  of  the  reasons,  than  a  mere  statement  of  the  process.  In  this  case, 
an  outline  of  the  reasons  may  be  given  thus:  The  object  is  to  disengage  x 


*)  "Destroy  the  value  of  the  equation,"  is  an  absurd  expression  whicli  we  freqiiently 
hear.  An  equation  is  not  a  quantity,  and  hence  has  no  value.  The  equality  of  the 
members  is  meant. 


16  ALGP:BRA  —  AL14IABET 

from  its  connections  with  the  other  quantities  so  that  it  shall  stand 
alone,  constituting  one  member  while  the  other  member  is  a  known 
quantity.  The  tirst  process  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  equals 
subtracted  from  equals  leave  erpial  remainders,  the  second,  upon  the 
principle  that  equals  divided  by  equals  give  equal  quotients,"  etc.  Again, 
wliile  it  is  admissible,  when  the  purpose  is  to  fix  attention  upon  any 
particular  transformation,  to  omit  the  reasons  for  some  of  those  pre- 
viously studied,  it  is  far  better  th  it  these  be  omitted  pro  forma  than  that 
something  which  is  not  an  exposition  of  reasons  be  given.  'I'hus,  if  the 
present  purpose  is  to  secure  drill  in  the  theory  of  conq)leting  the  square, 
after  having  enunciated  the  problem,  the  pupil  may  say:  "  Having  re- 
duced the  equation  to  the  form  .c'  —  -A.c  =  32,"  etc.,  proceeding  then  to 
give  in  full  the  explanation  of  the  process  under  consideration.  But  it  is 
well  to  allow  no  recitation  on  such  a  subject  to  pass  without  having  at 
least  one  full  explanation.  These  remarks  apply  to  study  and  recitations 
designed  to  give  intelligent  facility  in  reducing  equations.  In  what  may 
be  called  "Applications  of  equations  to  the  sohitiou  of  practical  problems, ' 
the  purpose  is  quite  different,  and  so  should  be  the  pupil's  explanation. 
In  these,  the  slalemeat  is  the  important  thing,  and  should  be  made  the 
main  thing  in  the  explanation.  In  most  such  cases,  it  will  be  quite 
sufficient,  if,  after  having  given  the  reasons  for  each  step  in  the  statement, 
thus  fully  explaining  the  principles  on  which  he  has  made  the  equation, 
the  pupil  conclude  by  saying  simply:  "Solving  this  equation,  I  have," 
etc.  Outlines  of  demonstrations  and  synopses  of  topics  are  exceedingly 
valuable  as  class  exercises.  For  example,  it  requires  a  far  better  knowl- 
edge of  the  demonstration  of  Sturm's  theorem  to  be  able  to  give  the  fol- 
lowing outline  than  to  give  the  whole  in  detail:  (1)  Xo  change  in  the 
variable  which  does  not  cause  some  one  of  the  functions  to  vanish,  can 
cause  any  change  in  the  number  of  variations  and  permanences  of  the 
signs  of  the  functions;  (2)  No  two  consecutive  function,"?  can  vanish 
for  the  same  value  of  the  variable;  (3)  The  vanishing  of  an  inter- 
mediate function  cannot  cause  a  change  in  the  number  of  variations  ami 
permanences;  and  (4)  'J'he  last  function  cannot  vanish  for  any  value  of 
the  variable;  and,  as  the  first  vanishes  every  time  the  value  of  the 
variable  passes  through  a  root  of  the  equation,  it  by  so  doing  causes  a  loss 
of  one,  and  only  one,  variation.  W'e,  therefore,  have  the  theorem  [giving 
the  theorem j.  Finally,  no  sulyect  sliould  be  considered  as  mastered  by  the 
pupil  until  he  can  place  upon  the  blackboard  a  synoptical 
Blackhoard  ^^y^y\y^\^  yf  j^^  ^nd  discuss  each  point,  either  in  d(>tail  or  in  out- 
line, without  any  questioning  or  pronqjting  by  the  teacher. 
The  order  of  arrangement  of  topics,  L  e. ,  the  sequence  of  definitions, 
principles,  tlieorems,  etc.,  is  as  much  a  part  of  the  subject  considered 
scientifically  as  are  the  detailed  facts ;  and  the  former  shoulil  be  as  firmly 
fixed  in  the  mind  as  the  latter. 

ALMA  MATER  {IM.,  fostering  mother)  is  a  name  affectionately 
given  by  students  of  colleges  and  universities  to  the  institution  to  which 
they  owe  their  education. 

ALPHABET,  The  alphabet  of  any  language  is  the  series  of  letters, 
arranged  in  the  customary  order,  which  form  the  elements  of  the 
language  when  written.     It  derives  its  name  from  the  first  two  letters  of 


ALPHABET  17 

the  Greek  alphabet,  which  are  named  alpha,  beta.  The  letters  in  the  English 
alphabet  have  the  same  forms  as  those  of  the  Latin  language,  which  were 
borrowed  from  the  Greek.  The  Latin  alphabet,  however,  did  not 
Alphabets  contain  all  the  Greek  letters.  The  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet 
■  were  borrowed  from  the  Phoenician,  which  was  that  used  by 
many  of  the  old  Semitic  nations,  and  is  of  unknown  origin.  It  consisted  of 
22  signs,  representing  consonantal  sounds.  Into  this  alphabet  the  Greeks 
introduced  many  modifications,  and  the  changes  made  by  the  Romans  were 
also  considerable.  Its  use  in  English  presents  many  variations  from  its 
final  condition  in  the  I->atin  language.  Thus,  I  and  J,  and  U  and  V,  in- 
stead of  being  merely  graphic  variations,  were  changed  so  as  to  represent 
diiferent  sounds,  during  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  AV  was  added 
previously,  in  the  middle  ages.  The  twenty-six  letters  of  our  alphabet  have 
been  thus  classified  with  regard  to  their  history :  (1)  B,  D,  H,  K,  L,  M,  N, 
P,  Q,  R,  S,  T,  letters  from  the  Phoenicians ;  (2)  A,  E,  I,  0,  Z,  originally 
Phoenician,  but  changed  by  the  Greeks ;  (3)  U  (same  as  V) ,  X,  invented 


a  recent  addition,  formed  by  doubling  U  (or  V),  whence  its  name. 

llie  imperfections  of  the  English  alphabet  are  manifold  :    (1 )  Different 

consonants  are  used  to  represent  the  same  sound;  as  c  (soft)  and  s,  g  (soft) 

and  j,  c  (hard)  and  k,  q  and  k,  x  and  ks.  (2)  Different  sounds 

English     are  expressed  by  the  same  letter;  as  c  in  ca^;  and  ce//,  r/  in  get 

imperfect    ^"^  •9^'"'  «  i"  «^'^  ^"^  '"'^''  /  ^^  if  ^"^  of,  etc.     (3)  llie  vowels  are 
constantly  interchanged,  as  is  illustrated  in  the  following  table 
of  the  vowel  elements  of  the  language  and  their  hteral  representations, 
the  diacritical  marks  used  being  tliose  of  AA'ebsters  Dictionary. 


Long. 

Short. 

a  e      as  in  ape,  they 

£ 

as  in  end 

&  e       "   "  care,  ere 

S. 

"    "  hat 

a          "   "  art 

a 

•'    "  a.«k 

a  6       "   "  all,  orb 

a  <3 

"   "  what,  not 

e  i  _    "   "  eve,  pique 

f 

"    "  Bit 

e  i  y   "   "  her,  sir,  myrrh 

6           "  "  old 

o  u  00  "   "  do,  rule,  too 

9  u 

00 

"    "  wolf,  put,  book 

u          "  "  urn 

6  u 

•'    "  love,  luck 

u  _       "   "  use 

i  y       "   "  ice,  my 

oi  oy   "    "  oil,  boy 

ou  o\v  "   "  out,  owl 

From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  letter  a  is  used  to  represent 
seven  different  sounds;  e,five  sounds;  o,  six  sounds,  etc.  (See  Phonetics.) 
'Fhe  names  given  to  the  letters  are  not  in  conformity  Avith  a  uniform  prin- 
ciple of  designation.  Thus,  the  names  of  b,  c,  d,  g,p,  i,  v,  and  z  are  be,  ce, 
de,ge,  etc.;  while  the  names  of  /,  /,  m,  n,  s,  and  x  arc  ef,  el,  em,  en,  etc.; 
and  the  names  of  j,  k,  are  jn,  ka.  The  heterogeneity  of  these  names  and 
of  their  construction  will  be  obvious.  It  is" important  that  the  teacher 
should  take  cognizance  of  these  incongruities  in  giving  elementary  instruc- 
tion, as  they  dictate  special  methods  of  presentation.  (See  Alphabet 
Method.) 


18  ALPHABET  METHOD 

ALPHABET  METHOD,  or  A-B-C  Method.  This  has  reference 
tx)  the  first  steps  in  teaching  children  to  read.  According  to  this  method, 
the  pupil  must  learn  the  names  of  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
Method  gitijgi.  from  an  A-B-C  book,  from  atrds,  or  from  the  blackboard; 
described.  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^_^  taught  to  recognize  the  various  forms  of 
the  letters,  and  to  associate  with  them  their  respective  names.  The  method 
of  doing  this,  once  very  general,  was  to  supply  the  pupils  with  books,  and 
then,  calling  up  each  one  singly,  to  point  to  the  letters,  one  after  the  other, 
and  to  pronounce  the  name  of  each,  so  as  to  associate  arbitrarily  the  form 
with  the  name;  or,  in  simultaneous  class  instruction,  to  exhibit  the  letters 
on  separate  cards,  and  t*iach  their  names  by  simple  repetition.  This  pro- 
cess must,  of  course,  be  not  only  long  and  tedious,  but  exceedingly  dry  and 
uninteresting  to  a  child,  since  it  affords  no  incentive  to  mental  activity,  — 
no  food  for  intelligence.  By  a  careful  selection  and  discrimination,  how- 
ever, in  presenting  the  letters  to  the  attention  of  the  child,  its  intelligence 
may  be  addressed  in  teaching  the  alphabet  by  this  method.  The  simple 
forms,  such  as  I,  0,  X,  8,  will  be  remembered  much  more  readily  than  the 
others;  and  these  being  learned,  the  remainder  may  be  taught  by  showing 
the  analogy  or  similarity  of  their  forms  with  the  others.  Thus  O  becomes 
C  when  apportion  of  it  is  erased;  one  half  of  it  with  I,  used  as  a  bar,  forms 
D;  two  smaller  U's  form  B;  and  so  on.  This  method  is  very  simple,  and 
may  be  made  quite  interesting  by  means  of  the  blackboard. 

The  letters  which  closely  resemble  each  other  in  form,  such  as  A  and 
V,  M  and  N,  E  and  F,  and  C  and  G,  among  capitals,  and  b  and  (/,  c  and 
e,p  and  q,  and  ii  and  ;<,  among  small  letters,  should  be  presented 
C(Tni-  together,  so  that  their  minute  differences  may  be  discerned. 
^7  ff-^  ^Vheu  the  blackboard  is  used  (as  it  should  always  be  in  teaching 
0/  c  "s-  gj^.^ggggj_  tijy  letters  may  be  constructed  before  tlie  pupils,  so  that 
they  may  perceive  the  elements  of  which  they  are  composed.  Thus  the 
children  will  at  once  notice  that  b,  d,  p,  q,  are  composed  of  the  same  ele- 
ments, differently  combined,  —  a  straight  stroke,  or  stem,  and  a  small 
curve.  By  an  appropriate  drill,  the  peculiar  forms,  with  the  name  of  each, 
will  then  be  soon  impres.sed  upon  the  pupils'  minds;  and.  besides  that,  their 
sense  of  analogy,  one  of  the  most  active  principles  of  a  child's  mind,  wiU  be 
addressed,  and  this  will  render  the  instruction  lively  and  interesting.  In 
carrying  out  this  plan,  the  teacher  may  use  the  blackboard,  and 
Apparatus.^  a  review,  or  for  practice,  require  the  children  to  copy, 
and  afterwards  draw,  from  memory,  on  the  slate,  the  letters  taught. 
Cards  may  also  be  used,  a  separate  one  being  employed  for  each  letter. 
AVith  a  suitable  frame  in  which  to  set  them,  these  may  be  used  with  good 
advantage,  the  teacher  making,  and  the  children  also  being  required  to 
make,  various  combinations  of  the  letters  so  as  to  form  short  and  familiar 
words.  A  horizontal  wooden  bar  with  a  handle,  and  a  groove  on  the  upper 
edge  in  which  to  insert  the  cards,  forms  a  very  u.soful  piece  of  apparatus 
for  this  purpose.  Lrtter-Blocks  may  also  be  used  in  a  similar  manner  by 
both  teacher  and  pupils.  These  blocks  are  sometimes  cut  into  sections  so 
as  to  divide  the  lett<.>r  into  several  parts,  and  the  pupil  is  required  to  adjust 
the  parts  so  as  to  form  the  letter.  This  method  affords  both  instruction 
and  amusement  to  young  children,  and  at  the  same  time,  gives  play  to 
their  natural  impulse  to  activity.    These  various  methods  will  be  combined 


ALUMNEUM  —  ANALYSIS  19 

and  others  devised  by  every  ingenious  teacher.  In  some  schools  a  piece  of 
apparatus,  called  the  reading  frame,  is  used.  This  is  constructed  like  a 
blackboard  with  horizontal  grooves,  in  which  the  lettere  can  be  placed  so  as 
to  slide  along  to  any  required  position.  By  the  use  of  assorted  letters,  the 
teacher  can  construct  any  word  or  sentence,  building  it  up  letter  by  letter, 
as  types  are  set.  Many  interesting  exercises  in  reading  and  spelling  may 
be  given  by  means  of  such  an  apparatus,  the  children  being  required  to 
construct  words  and  sentences  thejnselves,  as  well  as  to  read  those  formed 
by  the  teacher.  The  A-B-C  nietliod  of  teaching  the  elements  of  reading 
has  now,  quite  generally,  been  superseded  by  the  woi'd  method.  Bain,  in 
Education  as  a  Science  (1881),  remarks  in  relation  to  this  method:  "Much 
stress  is  now  laid  Ijy  teachers  on  the  point  of  beginning  to  pronounce  short 
words  at  sight,  without  spelling  them;  and  a  strong  condemnation  is  uttered 
against  the  old  spelling  method.  The  difference  between  the  methods  is  not 
very  apparent  to  me;  after  a  few  preliminary  steps,  the  two  must  come  to 
the  same  thing."     (See  Orthography,  and  Phonetics.) 

ALUMNEUM,  or  Alumnat  (Lat.,  from  alere,  to  feed,  to  nourish), 
the  name  given  in  Germany  to  an  institution  of  learning  which  affords  to 
its  pupils  board,  lodging,  and  instruction.  The  first  institutions  of  this 
kind  arose  in  the  middle  ages  in  connection  with  the  convents.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  are  those  founded  by  Maurice  of  Saxony,  in  the  IGth 
century,  at  Pforta,  Meissen,  and  Grimnia.  When  the  pupils  were  received 
and  instructed  gratuitously,  they  were  expected  to  perform  various  services 
for  the  school  and  church,  such  as  singing  in  the  choir.  The  pupils  of  these 
schools  were  called  alumni.     (See  Alumnus.) 

AliUMNUS,  pi.  Alumni  (Lat.,  from  alere,  to  feed,  to  nourish)  origin- 
ally the  name  of  a  student  who  was  supported  and  educated  at  the  expense 
of  a  learned  institution  (see  Auumneum),  now  generally  applied  to  a  gradu- 
ate of  a  college  or  similar  institution.  The  graduates  of  higher  seminaries 
or  colleges  for  females  are  sometimes  called  alumnce. 

ANALYSIS,  Grammatical,  or  SententiaL  —  By  the  analysis  of 
a  sentence  is  meant  a  decomposition  of  it  into  its  logical  elements.  Every 
.  sentence  must  either  be  a-  single  proposition,  or  be  composed  of 
Jirpkination  propositions  more  or  less  intimately  related;  and  every  proposi- 
anahisis  ^^^"^  must  contain  a  subject  and  a,  predicate,  the  former  express- 
ing that  of  which  we  speak,  and  the  latter,  what  we  say  of  it. 
The  entire  or  logical  subject  must  contain  a  noun  or  pronoun,  either  alone 
or  with  related  words  called  modifiers  or  adjuncts,  or  it  may  be  a  phrase 
or  a  clause.  The  entire  or  logical  predicate,  in  the  same  manner,  must  con- 
sist of  a  verb  with  or  without  adjuncts.  These  constitute  all  the  parts, 
and  all  the  relations,  involved  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence.  A  few 
words,  such  as  interjections,  may  be  used  independently  of  them.  Grammar 
has  been  defined  as  the  "art  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly,"  or  as  the 
"practical  science  which  teaches  the  right  use  of  language";  and  for  general 
purposes  this  account  is,  perhaps,  sufficiently  explicit.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever, truly  distinguish  granmiar  from  the  other  arts  concerned  in  teaching 
the  "right  use  of  language,"  and  hence  does  not  correctly  point  out  its  pe- 
culiar province.  From  a  want  of  precision  in  defining  the  limitations  of 
any  art  or  science,  there  must  necessarily  follow  a  corresponding  inaccuracy 
and  looseness  in  its  treatment;  since,  before  we  can  reason  properly  as  to 


20  ANALYSIS 

the  best  methods  of  attaining  any  object,  we  must  clearly  conceive  what 
that  object  is,  and  carefully  distinguish  it  from  all  others. 

The  special  province  of  grammar  does  not  extend  beyond  the  construc- 
tion of  sentences;  but  it  is  quite  obvious  that  to  use  language  correctly, 
.  those  principles   and   rules  must  be  understood  whicli  underlie 

''^'"^^ '^•^  the  proper  method  of  combining  sentences  so  that  they  may 
•'  constitute  elegant  and  logical  di.scouree.    A  person  may  be  suin 

ciently  familiar  with  grammatical  rules  to  construct  sentences  with  perfect 
correctness,  but  may  so  arrange  them  as  to  express  only  nonsense;  and 
such  a  person  could  scarcely  be  considered  as  understanding  the  "right  use 
of  language."  'I'he  sentence  being  the  peculiar  province  of  grammar,  it 
follows  that  the  only  subjects  of  investigation  embraced  witliin  it  are 
words,  their  orthography,  inflectional  forms,  and  pronunciation,  and  their 
arrangement  in  sentences.  All  graminatieal  definitions  and  rules  are 
foundeil  vipon  the  relations  of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  to  each  other;  and, 
therefijre,  the.se  relations  should  be  first  taught.  It  is  with  reference  to 
these  relations,  that  words  are  classified  into  parts  of  sjjeech,  or,  as  they 
might  properly  be  called,  parts  of  the  sentence.  To  define  or  explain  these 
parts  of  speech  before  giving  any  definition  of  a  sentence,  is,  therefore, 
clearly  illogical;  yet  this  has  been  the  n)ethod  of  many  gramn)arians,  words 
being  explained  and  jmrsr'd  as  if  they  had  only  individual  properties.  It  is 
in  this  that  the  di.stinetion  between  parsing  and  grammatical  analysis  con- 
sists. l?oth  are,  in  fact,  only  dilTerent  kinds  of  analysis,  and  are  based  on 
precisely  the  same  relations,  —  those  in  which  the  words  stand  to  each 
other  as  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Parsing,  as    uniformly  enii)loyed    by    grammarians,   is    a 
1  arsiitf]      niinute    examination    of   the    individual  words  of    a  sentence, 

"  ,._^,  with  the  view  to  determine  whetlier  the  rules  of  grammar,  proper 
to  the  particular  language  in  which  the  .sentence  is  written,  have 
been  observed  or  violated.  Ai  alysis,  on  the  other  hand,  deals  with  the 
relations  ujion  which  tho.se  rules  are  ba.sed,  and  which  are  cumnu^n  to  all 
languages.  Thus,  in  parsing,  the  pupil  is  obliged  to  scrutinize  ail  the  in- 
flectional forms  in  which  the  words  comj)Osii)g  tlie  sentence  are  used;  and, 
in  order  to  determine  whether  they  are  pro[)er  or  not,  must  not  only  know 
the  rules  of  syntax,  but  the  relations  of  the  words  to  each  other,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  apply  those  rules.  'J'lio  relations  are  invariable  in  all  languages, 
but  the  rules  which  refer  to  the  inflections  are  founded  on  particular  usage, 
and  hence  are  in  no  two  languages  exactly  alike.  On  this  account,  since 
i\\(i  general  logically  precedes  the  Kpecinl.  the  treatment  of  sentential  anal- 
ysis should  precede  any  exercLses  in  parsing.  Otherwise,  how,  for  example, 
could  a  pujiil  be  required  to  distinguish  the  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns, 
and  the  person  and  number  of  verbs,  before  being  taught  the  relations  of 
the  words  to  each  other? 

By  means  of  the  analytical  method,  when  rightly  applied, 
Advantages  ^Y^^,   study   of  grammar   is  made  clear,  logical,  and  easy  from 

^''.    'f^  J  the  very  beginning.     The  pupil  is  first    taught  the  nature  of 

method     ^^^    sentence,  its  cs.sential    parts,  and  their   relations  to  each 

other,  and   is   sliown    how  to  anal3-zc   sentences   of   a  simple 

character.     He  is  trouV>led  with  but  little  phraseology;  for  all  the  terms 

that  are  essential  to  the  complete  distinction  and  designation  of  the  parts 


ANALYSIS  21 

of  a  sentence  are  subject,  verb  or  predicate,  object,  attribute,  and  adjuncts. 
These  being  defined,  and  the  pupil  taught  how  to  distinguish  them,  a  com- 
plete foundation  has  been  laid  for  the  intelligent  study  of  all  other  gram- 
matical terms  and  distinctions;  and  this  being  the  foundation,  should,  of 
course,  be  the  first  thing  done.  Those  who  oppose  the  analytical 
2ne  real  j^gtliod  assort  that  words  are  the  real  elements  of  a  sentence, 
eemens  ^^^^  ^j^^^  ^^^^  consideration  of  these  involves,  therefore,  an  ex- 
sentence  h^ustive  analysis  of  the  sentence  itself.  With  the  same  pro- 
priety might  it  be  said  that  pieces  of  iron  of  various  shapes  are 
the  elements  of  the  steam-engine.  They  indeed  compose  the  machine,  and 
it  can  ultimately  be  resolved  into  them;  but  could  its  structure  and  work- 
ings be  explained  by  taking  these  fragments  of  metal  in  a  hap-hazard  way, 
and  noticing  how  they  are  related  to  others  in  immediate  juxtaposition, 
without  regard  to  the  general  structure  of  the  machine,  and  the  dependence 
of  its  operation  upon  a  few  elementary  or  primary  parts,  as  the  cylinder, 
piston,  condenser,  etc.  ?  "Words  are  not  necessarily  the  real  elements  of  a 
sentence.  These  are  the  subject  and  predicate  and  their  adjuncts;  and, 
unless  these  component  parts  of  the  general  structure  be  first  observed,  the 
relations  of  the  separate  words  cannot  be  understood.  Hence,  we  find  that 
those  writers  who  have  ignored  a  definite  consideration  of  these  logical 
elements,  have  fallen  into  many  errors  and  inconsistencies. 

The  various  systems  of  analysis  in  use  differ  in  no  essen- 
Vijretent  ^j^j  respect,  the  chief  variation  being  in  the  nomenclature 
'^'  '"■  employed  to  designate  the  elements  of  the  sentence.  The 
name  generally  applied  to  a  proposition  forming  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  a 
clause,  and  any  group  of  related  words  not  making  a  proposition  is  called 
a  phrase.  The  modifying  elements  are  by  some  called  adjective  or  ad- 
vei-bial,  according  as  they  perform  the  functions  of  adjectives  or  adverbs. 
Instead  of  the  term  adjective,  adnominal  is  sometimes  employed.  The 
term  adjunct  is  generally  employed  to  designate  an  element  subordinate  to 
either  subject  or  predicate.  Such  adjuncts  may  be  modifyinq.  descriptive. 
or  apposiiional.  A  modifying  adjunct  changes  the  meaning  of  the  element 
to  which  it  is  applied,  generally,  by  making  it  more  specific,  or  by  restrict- 
ing the  class  to  wliich  it  belongs.  Thus  animal  is  a  more  general  term 
than  four-footed  animal;  hence,  fourfooted  is  a  modifying  adjunct.  But 
the  term  man  is  no  more  general  than  vian  that  is  born  of  a  icoonan,  or 
mortal  man;  the  adjuncts,  that  is  born  of  a  ivoman  and  viortal  being  only 
descriptive,  not  modifying.  Appositional  adjuncts  only  explain;  as:  He, 
the  chieftain  of  them  all,  in  which  the  phrase,  the  chieftain,  etc.,  is  only  ex- 
planatory, or  appositional.  Adjuncts  may  be  single  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses;  and  one  of  the  chief  advantages  of  sentential  analysis  is  to  show  the 
pupil  that  groups  of  words  are  often  used  so  as  to  perform  the  same  oflice 
as  single  words.  In  teaching  this  subject,  a  proper  gradation  of  topics 
should  be  observed;  and  much  caution  exercised  to  avoid  the  perplexing  of 
the  young  pupil  by  presenting  to  his  mind  distinctions  too  nice  to  be  dis- 
cerned by  his  undeveloped  powers  of  analysis.  Various  methods  have  been 
devised  in  order  to  present  to  the  eye  of  the  student  the  analyzed  sentence, 
so  as  to  show  clearly  the  relation  of  its  parts;  and,  in  the  rudimental  stages 
of  the  instruction,  these  are,  without  doubt,  of  considerable  utility;  but 
they  should  not  be  carried  so  far  as  to  present  to  the  student  a  confused 


22  ANALYTIC  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 

mass  of  loops,  lines,  curves,  or  disjointed  phrases,  far  more  difficult  to 
disentangle  than  to  analyze,  without  any  such  aid,  the  most  involved  sen- 
tence.    All  such  devices,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  only  auxiliaries  to  the 

minds  natural  operations,  and  cannot  at  all  supersede  them. 

yfi^      Neither  should  the  exercise  of  analyzing  sentences  be  allowed  to 

anahisis      degenerate  into  the  mechanical  application  of  its  most  simple 

requirements.  As  the  student  advances,  he  will  be  able  to  omit 
more  and  more  of  the  routine,  until  he  reaches  a  stage  of  progress,  at  which 
the  general  structure  of  the  sentence  —  its  component  clauses  and  their  re- 
lations, will  be  all  that  he  need  observe  or  state.  When  judiciously  and 
rationally  employed,  sentential  analysis  must  engender  a  very  important 
quality  of  mind,  and  greatly  conduce  to  clear  thinking,  intelligent,  critical 
reading,  and  accurate,  terse  expression. 

ANALYTIC  METHOD  OF  TEACHING.  This  is  the  method 
used  by  the  teacher  when  he  presents  to  his  pupils  com])osite  truths  or 
Described   ^^'^*^'  ^"^  ^y  means  of  analysis  shows  the  principles  involved,  or 

leads  the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  an  analysis  of  them  for  hin)self. 
In  this  way  he  teaches  principles  which  the  pupil  is  to  apply  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  many  diverse  problems.  In  the  synthetic  method,  the  teacher 
begins  with  principles,  explains  their  meaning,  and  shows  how  they  are  to 
be  applied.  I'hus,  suppose  the  pupil  is  to  be  taught  how  to  add  and  sub- 
111  t  •  tel  ^''^^^^  fractions  According  to  the  analytic  method,  the  fractions 
'  to  be  operated  upon  are  presented  to  the  pupils  mind,  and  he 
is  shown,  first  the  difficulty  involved,  and  secondly,  how  to  surmount  this 
difficulty,  by  (1)  finding  a  common  denominator,  and  (2)  by  changing  the 
numerator  so  that  the  fractions  with  the  common  denominator  may  have 
the  same  value  as  the  given  fractions.  Then  the  method  of  addition  or 
subtraction  becomes  obvious.  In  this  way  learning  the  printi[)le  himself 
by  analysis,  the  pupil  is  enabled  to  construct  a  general  rule  and  apply  it  to 
any  given  case.  In  the  synthetic  method,  the  pujiil  would  be  taught  in 
the  first  place  the  nature  and  use  of  a  common  denominator,  then  the  me- 
thod of  reducing  fractions  to  a  common  denominator,  and  then  to  add  or 
subtract  fractions  by  finding  a  common  denominator.  If  the  object  of  the 
,  ,  .  ^  instruction  given  were,  exclusively,  to  make  the  pujiil  expert  in 
^  "  adding  and  subtracting  fractions,  the  synthetic  method  would 
perhaps  have  some  advantage  over  the  analytic:  but,  since  an  important 
part  of  this  object  is  to  train  the  mind,  the  analytic  method  is  greatly  to  be 
preferred;  for  (1)  it  stimulates  the  mind  to  greater  activity.  (2)  it  teaches 
it  how  to  investigate  for  itself,  and  to  discover  truth,  and  (3)  it  gives  it  a 
much  clearer  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  ]>rinciples  involved  in  the  sub- 
T-  V  f  ^^^^  taught.  Whether  the  analytic  method  should  be  employed 
uTuse       '"^^  ^^  "^yhiit  extent,  is  to  be  determined  l)y  a  consideration  of 

the  nature  of  the  subject  taught,  and  the  degree  of  advancement 
of  the  student.  In  the  higher  stages  of  education,  much  time  would  be 
lost  by  rigorously  following  this  method;  and  if.  in  the  more  elementary 
stages,  the  pupil's  mind  has  been  thoroughly  trained  in  this  way,  it  will  not 
be  neceasary  to  adhere  to  it  when  he  comes  to  study  the  higher  branches. 
At  every  stage,  however,  there  will  be  occa.sion  for  the  use  of  ])oth  analysis 
and  synthesis;  and  the  ju<lgmcnt  of  the  teacher  must  be  exerci.sed,  at  every 
step,  to  determine  which  is  the  appropriate  method  to  be  employed. 


ANGLO-SAXON  —  APPARATUS  23 

ANGLO-SAXON.  There  are  no  persons  to  whom  this  study  is 
more  important  than  to  teachers  of  Enghsh  grammar.  The  explanations 
of  the  forms  of  words  are  all  to  be  sought  in  it.  The  origin  and  meaning 
of  the  possessive  ending  's,  of  the  plural  endings,  of  the  endings  for  gender, 
of  the  tense  forms  and  other  forms  of  the  verb,  the  adverbial  endings,  the 
prepositions,  may  at  any  time  be  demanded  of  the  teacher.  Pupils  will 
ask  him  whether  John's  book  is  a  contraction  of  John  his  book;  how  comes 
geese  to  be  the  plural  of  goose,  and  men  the  plural  of  man;  how  comes 
lad)/  to  be  the  feminine  of  lord;  how  comes  /  have  loved  to  express  the 
perfect  tense;  what  does  the  to  mean  when  you  say  to  be,  or  not  to  be,  that 
is  the  question,  and  so  on  without  end.  But  such  questions  cannot  be 
answered  without  knowing  Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  the  same  with  questions  of 
syntax.  Almost  all  difficulties  grow  out  of  Anglo-Saxon  idioms,  or  find 
their  solution  in  the  forms  of  that  speech.  Teachers  who  know  nothing  of 
the  history  of  the  language  puzzle  themselves  infinitely  with  subtle  reason- 
ings to  prove  that  expressions  must  be  parsed  in  one  way  or  another,  when 
a  glance  at  an  Anglo-Saxon  grammar  would  settle  the  matter  in  a  moment. 
No  teacher  can  safely  pronounce  on  any  such  mooted  questions  of  our 
language  without  knowing  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms.  No  normal  school 
ought  to  send  out  graduates  from  its  grammar  department  wholly  ignorant 
of  this  study.  A  lesson  a  day  during  the  last  school  term  skillfully  directed 
to  the  most  frequent  examples  in  which  this  knowledge  comes  into  use, 
would  perhaps  answer  the  most  pressing  necessities  of  the  common  school 
teacher.  Twice  that  time  would  be  a  meager  allowance  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  the  education  of  an  accomplished  high-school  teacher  in  this  depart- 
ment. For  this  study  may  be  used  March's  Comparative  Grammar  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Language  (New  York); — -this  contains  a  full  syntax; 
R.  Morris's  Historical  Outlines  of  English- Accidence  (London);  Hadley's 
Brief  Histor If  of  the  English  Language,  in  Webster's  Dictionary  (1865). 
For  a  full  consideration  of  this  subject,  see  Cyclopcedia  of  Education,  and 
Year-Bool:  of  Education  for  1878. 

APPARATUS,  Scliool.  —  The  work  of  instruction  in  school  is  very 
greatly  facilitated  by  sufficient  and  appropriate  apparatus,  such  as  black- 
boards, slates,  globes,  maps,  charts,  etc.  This  is  esjjecially  required  in  the 
,, ...  teaching  of  children  in  classes,  as  in  common  schools.     By  this 

^'  means,  the  sense  of  sight  being  addressed,  the  impressions  made 
are  clearer  and  more  durable.  Besides,  the  concrete  is  made  to  take  the 
place  of  the  abstract,  by  the  use  of  suitabje  apparatus;  and,  in  the  first 
stages  of  education,  the  former  is  almost  exclusively  to  be  employed  since 
abstract  principles  or  truths  are  not  comprehended  by  the  young  mind,  ex- 
cept upon  a  sufficiently  extensive  basis  of  concrete  facts.  Thus  by  means 
of  the  numeral  frame,  the  various  rudimental  combinations  of  numbers  are 
presented  to  the  mind  of  the  young  pupil,  in  connection  with  actual  objects; 
and  in  this  manner  a  clear  idea  is  given  of  those  processes  which,  merely  by 
J .  ..  abstract  statements  of  the  truths,  or  by  mere  verbal  repetition, 
however  long  continued,  would  scarcely  be  apprehended  at  all. 
Of  course,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  not  to  carry  the  use  of  such  ap- 
paratus beyond  its  proper  limits;  since  the  pupil's  mind  is  gradually  to 
be  accustomed  to  conceive  clearly  the  truth  of  abstract  propositions  with- 
out regard  to  their  concrete  applications. 


24  ARCHEOLOGY 

Every  stage  or  grade  of  school  instruction  must  have  its  appropriate 
apparatus.  Infant  instruction  requires  a  great  number  and  variety  of 
simple  apparatus  (gifts)  in  order,  by  natural  methods,  to  aid  the  develop- 
ment of  the  child's  mind.     (See  Kinuergarten.)     The    primary  school 

should  be  supplied  with  a  numeral  frame,  blackboards,  slates, 
f^T,       and  pencils  for  the  use  of  the  children,  a  box  of  forms,  spelling 

and  reading  cliarts,  color  charts,  pictures  of  animals,  etc.;  and, 
when  elementary  geography  is  taught,  simple  maps  and  a  small  globe.  For 
this  purpose,  one  that  may  be  divided  into  hemispheres  (Iland-Ilcmisphere 
Globe)  is  best;  since  by  means  of  it  the  relation  of  the  planisphere  maps 
to  the  globe  may  be  clearly  shown.  (See  Globes.)  A  simple  relief  globe  ■ 
is  also  of  great  service  at  this  stage.  Other  ingenious  and  attractive  ap- 
paratus has  been  devised  to  aid  the  work  of  the  primary  school  teacher,  to 
which  a  special  reference  is  not  needed.  In  the  more  advanced  stages  of 
instruction,  the  use  of  any  other  than  the  ordinary  apparatus,  such  as  the 
blackboard,  maps,  globes,  etc.,  becomes  less  and  less  necessary,  except  in 
the  teaching  of  certain  special  subjects;  as  higher  arithmetic,  mensuration, 
astronomy,  and  other  departments  of  natural  science.  For  such  purposes, 
the  cube-root  blocks  and  other  geometrical  solids,  a  tellurian,  an  orrery,  etc., 
will  be  of  great  value.    Charts  of  physiology,  history,  etc.,  are  scarcely  to 

be   dispensed    with.     In  the  teaching  of  natural  science,  very 

^^"'^       expensive  and  complicated  apparatus  is  not  at  first  required. 

■''""f'^      Indeed,  the  simpler  it  is,  the  better;  since  the  use  of  such  appli- 

"^jfetded'^^  ances  will  incite  the  pupil  himself  to  experiment  with  those 

simple  contrivances  which  his  own  powei-s  of  invention  will 
enable  him  to  devise.  'I'hus  the  use  of  the  lever  may  be  just  as  well  ex- 
plained by  means  of  a  penholder  or  a  pointer  as  by  a  polisned  steel  rod 
specially  constructed  for  the  purjiose.  Nothing  marks  more  fully  the 
ability  of  the  teacher  than  adroitness  in  availing  himself  of  all  common 
resources  for  the  purpose  of  illustration.  Some  of  the  most  important 
discoveries  in  physical  science  have  been  made  with  very  rude  apparatus. 
In  the  use  of  apparatus  to  illustrate  scientific  facts,  as  of  the  globe, 
tellurian,  or  orrery  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  astronomy,  it  should  al- 
ways be  borne  in  mind  tliat  such  contrivances  cannot  supersede  the  study 
of  nature  itself.  Cumbrous  and  complicated  machinery,  without  an  atten- 
tive ob.servation  of  the  natural  phenomena  which  they  are  intended  to  ex- 
plain, rather  serve  to  give  false  notions  than  to  impart  correct  ideas  of  the 
actual  facts.  The  latter  must  be  clearly  grasped  by  the  mind  as  facts  be- 
fore their  illustration  is  attempted  by  means  of  artificial  contrivances.  'J'his 
depends  upon  an  important  principle  which  the  teacher  should  be  careful 
to  recognize  and  apply.     (See  Biackboard,  and  Xcmerai.  Frame.) 

ARCHEOLOGY  (from  npxnior,  ancient,  and  '/6-}oc,  knowledge, 
science)  denotes  properly  the  science  of  antiquities.  In  the  widest  sense  of 
the  word,  it  would  embrace  the  history,  mytiiology,  political  institutions, 
religion,  commerce,  industry,  literature,  and  fine  arts  of  ancient  times,  but 
it  is  now  used  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  as  treating  of  the  remains  of  the 
primitive  inhal)itants  of  a  country.  Thus,  while  it  is  an  important  hand- 
maid of  history,  it  is  widely  distinguished  from  it.  To  the  teaching  of 
history,  even  in  the  most  rudimental  form,  this  subject  is  not  to  be  diB- 
pensed  with. 


ARITHMETIC  25 

ARITHMETIC  (Gr.  apt^jUTj-tK^  from  apL-&ii6q,  number),  the  sci- 
ence of  numbers.  This  subject  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  curric- 
ulum of  all  elementary  schools,  both  primary  and  grammar,  as  well  from 
its  educational  or  disciplinary,  as  from  its  practical  value.  In  the  practical 
consideration  of  this  subject,  the  lirst  topic  that  presents  itself  is: 

WiKit  should  omstittde  the  course  in  arithnn-tic.  —  In  the  first 
place,  there  should  be  a  thorough  unification  of  the  processes  of  mental 
Mil  H  ^"^^  written  arithmetic.  There  is  but  one  science  of  arith- 
writlen  ^^^^^''  ^^*^  everything  that  tends  to  produce  the  impression 
in  the  pupil  s  mind  that  there  are  two  species,  the  one  in- 
tellectual and  the  other  mechanical,  is  an  obstacle  to  his  true  progress. 
What  is  valuable  in  the  methods  now  peculiar  to  mental  arithmetic, 
needs  to  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with  what  is  practically  convenient 
or  necessary  in  written  arithmetic;  so  that  the  whole  may  be  made 
perfectly  homogeneous.  The  basis  upon  which  this  is  to  be  effected  is, 
that  principles  should  be  discussed  first  by  the  use  of  small  numbers  which 
can  be  easily  held  in  the  mind,  and  which  do  not  render  the  difficulty  or 
labor  of  combination  so  great  as  to  absorb  the  attention,  or  divert  it  from 
the  line  of  thought;  and  that  we  should  pass  gradually,  in  applying  the 
reasoning,  to  larger  numbers  and  more  difficult  and  complex  combinations, 
in  which  pencil  and  paper  are  necessary.  'J'he  rationale  should  be  always 
the  same  in  the  mental  (properly,  oral)  arithmetic  and  in  the  written,  pen- 
cil and  paper  being  used  only  when  the  numbers  become  too  large,  or  the 
elements  too  numerous,  to  render  it  practicable  to  hold  the  whole  in  the 
mind.  For  example,  suppose  the  pupil  to  be  entering  upon  the  subject  of 
percentage.     The  first  step  is  to  teach  what  is  meant  by  per  cent.  Iii  order 

to  do  this,  small  numbers  will  be  used,  and  the  process  will  not 
tions^'      ^^^^^^^  pencil  and  paper,  nor  will  such  numbers  be  selected  at 

first,  as  will  cause  difficulty  in  effecting  the  combinations.  Thus, 
the  first  questions  may  be,  "Mr.  A  had  300  sheep  and  lost  5  out  of  each 
hundred;  how  many  did  he  lose?"  "What  phrase  may  we  use  instead  of 
'5  out  of  each  hundred?' "  "Mr.  B  had  an  orchard  of  400  peach-trees  and 
lost  6  per  cent  of  them;  how  many  did  he  lose?"  "What  phrase  may  we 
use  instead  of  '6  per  cent?'  "  To  assign  as  the  first  example,  one  like  the 
fojlowing  would  be  a  gross  violation  of  this  principle:  "Mr.  A  put  out 
$759  on  7  percent  interest;  what  was  the  interest  for  a  year?"  After 
the  principle  to  be  taught  is  clearly  seen,  larger  numbers  should  be  intro- 
duced, and  such  as  require  that  the  work  be  written.  But  the  same  style 
of  explanation  should  be  preserved;  and  great  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
it  seen  that  the  method  of  reasoning  is  the  same  in  all  cases.  To  illustrate 
still  farther:  as,  in  practice,  the  computer  ordinarily  uses  tha  rate  as  the 
multiplier,  the  form  of  explanation,  when  the  whole  is  given  orally,  should 
be  adapted  to  this  fact.  At  first,  such  an  example  as  the  first  above  will 
naturally  be  solved  thus:  "If  Mr.  A  lost  5  sheep  out  of  100,  out  of  3 
hundred  he  lost  3  times  5,  or  15  sheep."  But  before  leaving  such  simple 
illustrations,  the  reasoning  should  take  this  form:  "  Since  losing  1  out  of 
100  is  losing  .01  of  the  number,  losing  5  out  of  100  is  losinf^  .05  of  the 
number.  Hence.  Mr.  A  lost  .05  of  300  sheep,  which  is  15  sheep."  Thus, 
in  all  cases,  the  form  of  thought  which  will  ordinarily  be  required  in  solv- 
ing the  problem,  should  be  that  taught  in  the  introductory  analysis.    A 


26  ARITHMETIC 

farther  illustration  of  this  is  furnished  by  rechictinyi.  At  first,  the  question, 
'•How  many  ounces  in  5  lb.'/"  will  naturally  be  answered,  "Since  there 
are  Ki  oz.  in  1  lb.,  in  5  lb.  there  are  5  times  Ki  oz.,  or  80  oz. "  But  in 
practice  the  16  is  ordinarily  used  as  the  multiplier,  and  it  is  better  that  the 
introductory  (mental)  analy.^is  should  conform  to  this  fact.  Hence,  the 
pupil  should  be  led  to  see,  at  the  outset,  that,  as  every  pound  is  composed 
of  i<)  ounces,  in  any  given  weight  there  are  10  times  as  many  ounces,  as 
pounds;  and  he  should  be  required  to  analyze  accordingly. 

Apart  from  this  use  of   what  are  called  mental  processes, 

Use  of  tijgj.^  13  no  proper  well-defined  sphere  for  their  employment.  In 
vrocesses  Practical  aiiplicatious,  it  is  quite  unphilosophical  to  classify  the 
'  examples,  by  calling  some  meittul  and  others  a-ritUn.  ^Ve  do 
not  find  them  so  labeled  in  actual  business  life.  The  pupil  needs  to  dis- 
criminate for  himself  as  to  whether  any  particular  example  should  be 
solved  without  the  pencil  or  with  it.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that 
business  men  rely  very  little  upon  these  mental  operations.  '1  hey  use  the 
pen  and  paper  for  almost  every  computation.  In  the  second  place,  in  con- 
structing our  course  in  arithmetic,  we  need  to  give  the  most  careful  atten- 
tion to  the  condition  and  wants  of  the  youth  found  in  our  public  schools. 
Perhaps  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say,  that  from  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  pupils  disappear  from  these  schools  by  the  close  of  the  seven;  h  school 
year;  and  not  more  than  one  in  one  hundred  takes  a  high  school  course. 
Since  all  pupils  of  the  common  schools  have  need  of  the  rudiments  of 
number,  as  counting,  reading  and  writing  small  numbers,  the  simple  cora- 
.  _  binations  embraced  in  i\\Q  add  tion,  siihivdction,  midlqi  io.iion, 
rrimaiy  ^^^j  division  tables,  the  simpler  forms  oifravtions,  and  the  more 
common  denominations  of  ompound  iiumheis,  an  elementary 
textbook  is  deemed  to  be  needful  for  many  schools.  The  objections  often 
urged  to  ha  ing  these  primary  lessons  entirely  oral  are,  that  it  makes  an 
uimecessary  draft  upon  the  time  and  energy  of  the  teacher,  renders  the 
pupils'  progress  very  slow,  does  not  so  reailily  supply  the  means  of  giving 
them  work  while  not  actually  under  instruction,  and  more  than  all,  begets 
in  their  minds  a  dislike  for  stuily  and  self-exertion,  and  a  disposition  to 
expect  that  the  teacher  must  do  all  the  work,  and  thus  carry  them  along. 
But  whatever  disposition  niay  be  made  of  primary  nrit/,me/ic,  as  usually 
.  understood,  there  is  an  imperative  demand  that  the  course  in 
rrnctical    arithnietic  for  the  mas.ses  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  more 

sujjeo.s.  j,j,portant  practical  subjects  can  be  reached  and  n)astered  by  a 
majority  of  our  youth  during  the  comparatively  short  time  whicli  they  can 
spend  in  our  schools.  In  order  to  effect  this,  three  things  will  be  found 
necessaiy:  (1)  a  rigorotis  exclusion  of  all  topics  relatively  uTiimportant, 
(2)  a  judicious  limitation  of  the -topics  presented,  and  (3)  care  that,  in  tiie 
laudable  desire  to  secure  facility  in  fundamental  processes.  —  adding, 
multiplying,  etc..  the  teacher  does  not  consume  so  nuich  time  that  the  great 
mass  of  the  pupils  will  never  advance  beyond  the  merest  rudiments  of  the 
subject.  'I'lie  range  of  topics  to  be  included  in  the  common  school 
Ravqe  of  (bourse,  will  be  the  fnudnmeiitdl  ridrs;  common  and  (/en'mal 
optcs.  f,.,,Qij„n!i\  d'vnmiii'iff.  nKinhr-ra  'care  being  taken  to  reject  all 
obsolete  or  unusual  denominations,  and  to  give  abundant  exerci.ses  calcu- 
lated to  insure  a  definite  conception  of  the  meaning  of  the  denominations)} 


ARITHMETIC  27 

percentage,  including  simple,  animal,  and  compoimd  hiterest,  •m.Wv  partial 
payments,  common  and  bank  discount,  and  some  of  the  more  common  uses 
oi  percentage.  If,  after  this,  the  course  may  be  extended,  the  next  subjects 
in  importance  are  ratio,  proportion,  and  the  square  and  cube  roots;  and 
in  treating  these,  constant  care  will  be  necessary  to  introduce  problems 
which  occur  in  actual  life,  and  as  far  as  possible  to  exclude  all  others. 
Somethino-  of  common  mensuration  should  be  introduced  in  connection 
with  the  tables  of  measures  of  extension;  and  the  more  common  problems 
in  commission,  insurance,  taxes,  stocks,  etc.,  will  be  readily  introduced  in 
percentage  without  occupying  either  much  space  or  time. 

For  the  few  who  can  take  a  more  extended  course,  a  thor- 
Extended    Q-^aUy  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  of  arithmetic  is  de- 
course,      sii-able;  and  this  quite  as  much  for  its  disciplinary  effect,  in 
a-ivinc  breadth  and  scope  to  the  conceptions,  and  inducing  a  disposition  to 
systematize  and  generalize,  and  thus  to  view  truth  in  its  relations,  as  for 
the  amount  of  mere  arithmetical  knowledge  which  may  be  added  to  the 
pupil's  stock.   Here  we  may  introduce  au  analytical  outline  of  the  subject, 
presenting  the  topics  in  their  philosophical  relations,  rather  than 
Analytical  -^^   their   mere  practical  and  economic   order  and  connection. 
outline,     -pj^^g^  j,^  treating  notation,  the  various  forms  of  notation  can  be 
introduced,  as  of  simple  and  compound  numbers,  other  scales  than  the 
decimal,  various  forms  of  fractional  notation,  the  elements  of  the  literal 
notation,  etc.     Then,  as  reduction  is  but  changing  the  form  of  notation, 
this  topic  will  come  next,  and  wiU  embrace  all  the  forms  of  reduction 
found  in  common  arithmetic,  as  from  one  scale  to  another,  of  denominate 
numbers,  of  fractions  common  and  decimal,  etc.,  showing  how  all  arith- 
metical reductions  are  based  on  the  one  simple  principle:  If  the  unit  in 
reference  to  lohich  the  number  is  to  be  expressed  is  made  smaller,  the 
number  must  be  multiplied,  and  if  the  unit  of  expression  is  made  larger, 
the  number  must  be  divided.     Passing  to  the  combinations  of  number, 
under  addition  all  processes  thus  designated  in  arithmetic  will  be  treated, 
and  the  general  pi-inciples  out  of  which  they  all  grow  will  be  developed. 
In  this  method  of  treatment,  the  pupil  will  not  find  himself  merely  going 
over  the  elementary  subjects  through  which  lie  plodded  in  the  days  of  his 
childhood,  but  new  ranges  of  thought  will  be  presented,  at  the  same  time 
that  all  the  principles  and  processes  of  the  elementary  arithmetic  are  re- 
viewed; the  very  first  sections,  even  those  on  notation,  reduction,  and  the 
fundamental  rules,  bringing  into  requisition  most  of  his  knowledge  of 
arithmetic,  and  giving  vigorous  exercise  to  his  mind  in  grasping  new  truth. 
But  in  addition  to  all  this,  which  pertains  to  the  method  of  presentation, 
there  will  be  much  of  practical  arithmetical  knowledge  to  be 
Business     gained.     In  the  business  rules,  discount  needs  a  much  fuller 
7-ules.       treatment  than  it  has  usually  received  in  any  of  our  text-books. 
Many  problems,  of  frequent  occurrence  in  modern  business  circles,  are  not 
provided  for  in  these  books;  and,  in  fact,  some  of  the  most  common  have 
had  no  solution  at  all  which  has  been  made  public.     The  wonderful  de- 
velopment of  the  insurance  business  demands  that  its  principles  and  meth- 
ods receive   a  much  fuller  treatment  than  they  can  have  in  au  elementary 
course:  this  is  especially  true  of  life  insurance.     Foreign  exchange,  cus- 
toms,   equation  of  payments,   etc.,   are  other  topics  suitable   for   this 


28  ABITITMETIC 

advanced  course,  -which  are  quite  impracticable  in  an  elementary  course, 
■within  the  reach  of  the  masses.     Two  other  ends  will  be  subserved  by  this 
method:  (1)  It  will  be  a  leading  purpose  t  >  te'tch  the  pupil  how  to  investi- 
gate, and  to  this  end  he  should  be  put  in  possession  of  the  great 

f.  instrument  for  mathematical  investigation, namely, the  equation, 
equa  ton.  ^J^  course,  only  the  simpler  forms  of  the  equation  can  be  intro- 
duced; nevertheless,  enough  can  be  given  to  enlarge  very  greatly  the  stu- 
dent's power  to  examine  new  questions  for  himself.  l»y  means  of  the 
equation,  he  may  be  taught  the  solution  of  such  problems  as  the  following, 
which  would  be  quite  out  of  his  reach  without  this  instrument: 

To  find  tchat  each  payment  must  be  in  order  to  discharge  a  given 
principal  and  interest  in  a  given  number  of  equal  pat/ments  at  equal 
inlerv<ds  of  time. 

To  find  the  present  worth  of  a  note  iidiich  has  been  running  a  certain 
time,  and  is  due  at  a  future  time^  with  annual  paymejits  on  the  p)rincipcd, 
and  annual  interest;  so  that  the  purchaser  shall  receive  a  difi'ercnt  rate  if 
annual  in'erest from  th<d  named  in  the  note, 

'I'hese  and  many  other  important  business  problems  are  quite  within 
the  reach  of  the  sinq)le  equation,  and  are  scarcely  legitimate  questions  to 
propose  to  a  student  who  has  not  some  knowledge  of  this  instrument.  (2) 
The  second  general  purpose  which  we  shall  mention  as  being  subserved  by 
this  course  is,  that  by  grouping  all  the  arithmetical  processes  vmder  the 
fewest  possible  heads  and  showing  their  philosophic  dependence,  the  whole 
is  put  in  the  best  possible  form  to  be  retained  in  the  memory.  Thus,  if  it 
is  seen  that  a  single  principle  covers  all  the  cases  in  reduction,  that  another 
simple  principle  covers  all  the  so-called  "problems  in  intei-est,"  that  all  the 
common  intricate  questions  in  discount  are  readily  solved  by  the  simple 
equation,  etc.,  these  processes  will  not  be  the  evanescent  things  which  they 
have  often  been. 

Principles  and  maxims  to  be  Tceptinview  while  teaching  arithmetic. 
—  I.  There  are  two  distinct  and  strongly  marked  general  aims  in  arith- 
metical study:  (1)  To  master  the  rationale  of   the   processes, 
Principles  gj^.j  ^.7)  'i'o  acquire  facility  and  accuracy  in  the  performance  of 

"'"^  these  operations.  The  means  which  secure  one  of  these  ends 
^^^  '  are  not  necessarily  adapted  to  secure  the  other.  'I'hus,  to  secure 
the  first  for  example,  in  reference  to  addition,  the  steps  are.  learning  to 
count,  learning  how  numbers  are  grouped  in  the  decimal  system,  learning 
how  to  make  the  addition  table,  and,  finally,  by  means  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  sum  of  the  digits  taken  two  and  two,  learning  to  find  the  sum 
of  any  given  numbers.  In  regard  to  the  latter  process,  the  pupil  needs 
to  know  why  we  write  units  of  a  like  order  in  the  same  column,  why 
we  begin  at  the  units'  column  to  add,  why  we  "carry  one  for  every 
ten,"  as  the  phrase  is,  etc.  But  all  this  may  be  known,  and  yet  the 
]>upil  jnake  sorry  work  in  ])ractical  addition.  In  order  to  secure  a  knowl- 
edge ai  the  rationale,  each  step  needs  to  be  clearly  explained  and  fully 
illustrated,  and  then  tlie  pupil  must  be  required  to  repeat  tlie  whole, 
'•over  and  over  again,"  in  his  own  language.  For  this  purpose,  much 
class  drill  on  the  blackboard,  in  having  each  pu])il  .'separately  explain 
in  detail  the  reasons  for  each  step  of  the  work  whicli  he  has  before  per- 
formed, v.'ill  be  necessary.     Pupils  may  be  required  to  bring  iirto  the 


ARITHMETIC  29 

class  practical  exercises  solved  on  their  slates,  and  then  sufficient  time  be 
given  to  explanation  from  the  slates.  These  three  things  repeated  in  about 
the  same  way, — (1)  a  clear  preliminary  explanation  of  principles  either  given 
in  the  text-book  or  by  the  teacher,  (2)  a  thorough  mastery  of  these  prin- 
ciples by  the  pupil  so  that  he  can  state  them  in  a  general  way,  and  (3)  a 
careful  and  continued  repetition  of  them  in  the  class,  in  application  to 
particular  examples,— will  secure  the  first  of  these  general  ends  of  arithmet- 
ical study.  To  secure  the  second,  namely,  facility  and  accuracy  in  apply- 
ing these  principles,  so  as  to  be  able  to  add  with  ease,  rapidity,  and  ac- 
curacy, long  continued  drill,  with  the  mind  quite  unencumbered  by  any 
thought  of  tiie  reasons  for  the  processes,  will  be  indispensable.  It  will  not 
be  sutficient  that  pupils  solve  accurately  numerous  examples,  in  the  slow 
plodding  way  to  which  they  are  accustomed  in  their  private  study,  but 
large  numbers  of  fresh  problems  should  be  furnished  in  the  class,  which 
the°  pupils  should  be  required  to  solve  with  the  utmost  promptitude,  and 
with  perfect  accuracy.  In  respect  to  all  mere  numerical  combinations,  as 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  division,  involution,  evo- 
Oral  driUs.  ^^^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^j^jl^g  jjl-g  ^i^g  following  will  be  of  the  greatest 
use  and  should  be  continued  until  the  combinations  can  be  made 
as  rapidly  as  we  would  naturally  read  the  numbers:  leacher  repeats  while 
the  pupils  follow  in  silence,  making  the  combinations,  "5  -t-3^-2*  +3, 
squared,  —  7-f-7X'^  +  '^'  square  root,  etc."  These  oral  drills  may  be 
commenced  at  the  very  outset  in  regard  to  addition,  and  extended  as  the 
other  rules  are  reached,  and  should  not  be  dropped  until  the  utmost  facility 
is  secured.  A  similar  drill  exercise  can  be  secured  by  pointing  to  the 
digits  as  they  stand  on  the  board,  or  on  charts,  and  simply  speaking  the 
words  which  indicate  what  combinations  are  required.  Any  figures  which 
may  chance  to  stand  on  the  board  may  be  used  in  this  way  to  secure  an 
indefinite  amount  of  most  valuable  drill.  This  latter  exercise,  —  making 
the  combinations  at  sight  —  is  of  still  greater  practical  value  than  the 
former,  in  which  the  ear  alone  is  depended  upon;  for  it  is  a  singular  fact 
that  facility  in  one  method  does  not  insure  it  in  the  other,  and  the  latter 
is  the  form  in  which  the  process  is  usually  to  be  applied.  Again,  in  the 
bHsine.<s  rules,  the  principles  underlying  the  processes  must  be  clearly  per- 
ceived, and  the  pupil,  by  continued  practice  in  explaining  solutions  written 
upon  the  board,  must  become.able  to  give  in  good  language  the  reason  for 
each  step.  But  when  all  this  is  secured,  there  will  be  found  need  of  much 
drill  on  examples  to  the  answers  of  which  he  cannot  have  access,  and  which 
he  must  take  up  and  solve  at  the  moment.  In  this  department,  much 
valuable  exercise  may  be  given  by  handing  the  pupils  written  notes  or 
papers  in  due  form,  and  requiring  them  to  compute  the  interest,  or  dis- 
count, or  make  the  required  computation  at  sight.  But  the  illustrations 
now  given  will  suffice  to  show  that  there  are,  as  above  stated,  two  general 
purposes  —  "the  theoretical  and  the  practical  —  which  must  run  parallel 


*  The  signs  of  division,  multiplication,  etc.,  are  not  used  with  strict  propriety  in 
this  specimen  exercise:  they  are  applied  to  the  result  of  all  the  preceding  operations 
in  each  case  as  though  all  before  them  had  been  included  in  a  parenthesis.  Thus  in 
this  case  it  is  5  -f-  3,  or  8  which  is  meant  to  be  divided  by  2  giving  4,  to  this  3  added, 
giving  7,  this  squared,  giving  49,  etc. 


30  ARITHMETIC 

through  all  good  teaching  in  arithmetic,  aud  that  they  are  generally  to  be 
attained  by  different  means. 

II.  In  order  to  reaUze  the  above,  a  careful  discrimination 
ow  an  nQcis  ^o  be  made  between  simply  telling  how  a  thing  is  done, 
^'  and  telling  whi/  it  is  done.  Very  nmch  of  what  we  read  in  our 
text-books,  and  hear  in  class-rooms,  under  the  name  of  ouali/sis,  in  expla- 
nation of  solutions,  is  nothing  more  than  a  statement  of  the  process  —  a 
telling  how  the  particular  example  is  wrought.  This  vice  is  still  so  prevalent 
as  to  need  the  clearest  exposition  and  the  most  radical  treatment.  Indeed, 
it  has  become  so  general  as  to  be  mistaken  by  the  mas.ses  for  the  thing  it 
purpcjrts  to  be;  and  pupil  and  teacher  frequently  seem  to  think  that  this 
parrot-like  way  of  telling  what  has  been  done  is  really  a  logical  exposition 
of  the  principles  involved. 

III.  There  should,  also,  be  a  careful  discrimination  between  prtre  and 
applied  arithmetic,  in  oi'der  that  they  may  be  so  taught  as  to  secure  the 
proper  end  of  each.  Pure  arithmetic  is  concerned  solely  with 
Pure  and  abstract  numbers,  and  the  breadth  of  discipline  to  be  secured 
arilhmetic  ^^  ^^^  study  is  not  great;  but  the  applications  of  arithmetic  are 
"  almost  infinitely  varied,  and  give  a  far  wider  scope  for  mental 
training.  In  the  latter,  the  questions  are  not  how  to  multiply,  add,  sub- 
tract, etc.,  but  ichj  we  multiply,  add.  or  subtract.  Thus,  in  solving  a 
problem  in  interest,  it  would  be  quite  out  of  place  to  cumber  the  explana- 
tion with  an  exposition  of  the  process  of  multiplying  by  a  decimal,  but  it 
is  exactly  to  the  purpose  to  give  the  reason  for  so  doing.  The  most  im- 
portant object  in  applied  arithmetic  is  to  acquaint  one's  self  so  thoroughly 
with  the  conditions  of  the  problem  —  if  in  business  arithmetic,  with  the 
character  of  the  business  —  as  to  discern  what  combinations  are  to  be 
made  with  the  numbers  involved.  Many  of  these  applications  are  quite 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  mind  of  a  mere  child.  Thus,  to  attempt  to 
ex^jlain  to  very  young  pupils  the  commercial  relations  which  give  rise  to 
the  problems  oi  foreign  exehaiifje,  or  the  circumstances  out  of  which  many 
of  the  problems  in  regard  to  the  value  of  stocks  grow,  would  be  perfectly 
preposterous. 

Problems  ^^'     ^^^  teaching  applied  arithmetic,  it  is  of  the  first  im- 

portance that  the  problems  be  such  as  occur  in  actual  life,  and 
that  in  expressing  them,  the  usual  p)hraseology  be  employed.  For  example, 
compare  the  following: 

(1)  AVliat  is  the  present  worth  of  $500  due  3  yr.  7  mo.  20  da.  hence,  at  6 
per  cent  por  annum? 

(2)  1  have  a  7  per  cent  note  for  $rm,  dated  Feb.  6th.  1873,  and  due  July  10th, 
1870.  Mr.  Smith  proposes  to  buy  it  of  me  Sept.  ISth,  1874,  and  to  pay  me  .^iuch  a 
sum  for  it  as  .sliall  enable  him  to  "realize  10  per  cent  per  annum  on  liis  "investment. 
What  must  he  pay  me?  In  other  words,  what  is  the  present  worth  of  this  note 
Sept.  l>th,  ls74? 

The  first  supposes  a  transaction  which  could  rarely,  if  ever,  occur,  and 
even  di.sguises  that.  Most  pupils  who  have  gone  through  discount  in  the 
ordinary  way,  if  asked,  "What  interest  does  the  $.500  bear,  in  the  first  ex- 
ample?" would  answer,  "G  per  cent."  Of  course,  it  is  understood  that  the 
money  is  not  on  interest.  Moreover,  we  find  no  such  paper  —  no  notes 
not  bearing  interest  —  in  the  market.  Again,  the  assumption  seems  to 
be  that  the  note  —  if  even  a  note  is  suggested  at  all  —  is  discounted  at  the 


AEITHMETIC  31 

time  it  is  made.  Thus,  it  is  obvious  that  the  first  form  is  calculated  to 
give  the  pupil  quite  erroneous  impressious;  whereas  the  second  brings  a 
real  transaction  into  full  view. 

V.  From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  course,  it  should  be  the  aim 
to  teach  a  few  germinal  principles  and  lead  the  pupil  to  apply  them  to  as 
great  a  number  of  cases  as  his  time  and  ability  may  permit. 
Principles  j^'jjug^  ^^  i\^q  very  outset,  a  good  teacher  will  never  tell  the 
!:°  ^f,  child  how  to  count;  but  having  taught  him  the  names  of  the 
^^^^'  numbers  up  to  fuurteea,  will  show  him  the  meaning  of  the 
word  fourteen  (four  and  ten) ;  then  he  can  be  led  to  go  on  to  nineteen 
by  himself.  No  child  ought  to  be  iuld  how  to  count  from  fifteen  to 
nineteen;  and  after  twenty,  he  needs  only  to  be  shown  how  the  names 
of  the  decades,  as  twen-ty,  thir-ty,  forty,  and  fifty  are  formed,  to  be 
able  to  give  the  rest  himself;  nor  does  he  need  to  be  told  how  to  count 
through  more  than  one  decade.  In  reference  to  the  fundamental  tables, 
it  may  be  suggested  that  no  pupil  should  be  furnished  with  an  addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  or  division  table  ready-made.  Having  been 
taught  the  principle  on  which  the  table  is  constructed,  he  should  be  re- 
quired to  make  it  for  himself.  As  preliminary  to  practical  addition  and 
subtraction,  the  combinations  of  digits  two  and  two  which  constitute 
any  number  up  to  18  (9  -f-  9)  should  be  made  perfectly  familiar.  'Ihus 
the  child  should  recognize  1+4,  and  2  +  3,  as  5;  1  +  .o,  2  +  4,  and 
3  +  3,  as  6  etc. ;  and  this  should  be  made  the  foundation  of  addition  and 
subtraction.  He  should  be  taught,  that  if  he  knows  that  3  +  4^7, 
he  knows  by  implication  that  23  +  4  ^=^  27,  33  +  4  =  37,  etc.  Passing 
from  the  prini'iri/  arUkme.Uc,  he  should  be  taught  common  fractions  by 
means  of  the  fewest  principles  and  rules  conaiaient  with  his  ability. 
Thus  in  multiplication  and  division,  To  multipb/  oi-  to  divide  a  fraction 
by  a  ivkole  number,  and  To  multiply  or  to  divide  a  u-1iole  number  by  a 
fraction,  &VQ  all  the  cases  needed;  and  these  should  be  taught  in  strict 
conformity  with  practical  principles.  Thus,  ^to  multiply  a  whole  number 
by  a  fraction  is  to  take  a  fra:tinn-il  pnrL  of  the  number;  and  to  divide 
a  number  by  a  fraction  is  to  find  how  many  times  the  latter  is  con- 
tained in  the  former.  To  cover  all  the  forms  of  reduction  of  denomi- 
nate numbers,  nothing  is  needed  but  the  principle  or  rule,  that  to  pass 
from  higher  to  lower  denominations,  we  multiply  by  the  number  which 
it  takes" of  the  lower  to  make  one  of  the  higher;  and  to  pa  s  from  lower 
to  higher  we  divide  by  the  same  number.  These  simple  principles  should 
be  seen  to  cover  all  cases,  those  involving  fractions  as  well  as  others. 

In  like  manner,  by  a  proper  form  of  statement  of  examples,  and  an 
occasional  suggestion  or  question,  most  of  the  separate  rules  usually  given 
under  p-'rcenlaf^e  may  he  dispensed  with.  In  dealing  with  the  cases  usually 
denominated  problems  in  interest.^  all  that  is  needed  is  the  following  brief 
rule:  Find  the  effect  jvoduced  by  using  a  unit  of  the  number  required, 
under  the  given  circumstances,  and  compare  this  with  the  given  effect. 
This  should  be  made  to  cover  the  cases  usually  detailed  under  six  of 
eight  rules. 

isiaqes  of  ^^-  "There  are  three  stages  of  mental  development  which 
meiilal  de-  should  be  carefully  kept  in  view  in  all  elementary  teaching: 
velopmenl.  (1)   The  earliest  stage,  iu  which  the  faculties  chiefly  exercised 


32  ART  EDUCATION  —  ARTS 

are  observation,  or  perception,  and  memory,  and  in  which  the  pupil  i3 
not  coiupeteuc  to  formulate  thought,  or  to  derive  benefit  from  abotract, 
formal  statements  of  principles,  delinitions,  or  processes;  (2)  An  inter' 
mednde  std  ,e,  in  which  the  reasoning  faculties  (abstraction,  judgment, 
etc.)  are  coming  into  prominence,  and  in  which  the  pupil  needs  to  be 
shown  the  truth,  so  tliat  he  may  have  a  clear  perception  (f  it,  before 
he  is  presented  with  a  formal,  abstract  statement,  the  work,  however, 
not  b^i'ig  concluded  until  he  can  state  the  truth  (definition,  piinciple, 
propositioa,  or  rule)  intelligently,  in  good  language,  and  in  general  (ab- 
stractj  terms;  (3)  An  idliinute  stu'je,  or  that  in  which  the  mental  powers 
are  so  matured  and  trained,  that  the  pupil  is  competent  to  receive  truth 
from  the  general,  abstract,  or  formal  statement  of  it.  At  this  stage, 
definitions,  principles,  pr^jpositioias,  and  statements  of  processes  may  be 
given  first,  and  illustrated,  demonstrated,  or  applied  afterward,  (riee 
Analytic  Mkthod,  and  Developing  Method  ) 

ART  ED  JC  Alio  .'J',  Every  complete  system  of  education  must 
provi  le  for  the  culture  of  all  the  varied  faculties  of  the  huu)an  mind, 
physical  and  intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual,  esthetic  and  emotional; 
and  must,  besides,  supply  the  means  necessary  for  the  developuient  of 
those  practical  capacities  upon  which  the  social  and  national  progress 
of  every  civilized  people  depends.  Among  the  agencies  required  for  this 
purpose,  art  education  claims  profound  attention.  The  element  of  beauty, 
which  exists  in  the  human  mind,  when  made  the  subject  of  progressive 
cultivation,  and  applied  to  the  various  industries  of  social  lite,  becomes 
a  thing  of  pecun  ary  as  well  as  esth  tic  value.  The  training  of  the  hand 
and  eye.  which  is  obtained  by  drawing,  is  ])roved  by  experience  to  be  of 
very  great  advantage  to  the  operative  in  every  branch  of  industry;  indeed, 
in  many  occupsitions,  drawing  is  indispensable  to  success.  But  the  value 
is  still  greater  if  to  this  simple  training,  the  culture  of  the  perception  and 
conception  of  forms  and  their  combinations  is  added,  leading  to  skill  in  de- 
signing —  a  branch  of  art  of  the  highest  value  in  very  many  departments 
of  manufacturing  industry.  "Art  education,"  says  an  eminent  authority, 
"embraces  all  tho-se  appliances  and  methods  of  training  by  which  the  sense 
of  form  and  proportion  is  developed.  It  is  successful  when  the  student 
unerringly  discriminates  between  what  is  ugly  and  what  is  beautiful,  and 
expresses  his  ideas  of  form  in  drawing  as  readily  as  ideas  of  other  sorts  on 
the  written  page."     (See  Drawing.) 

ARTS,  liiberal.  The  term  arts,  or  libernl  arts,  was,  during  the 
middle  ages,  applie>l  to  certain  studies  which  constituted  an  essential  part 
of  a  learned  education.  The  full  course  of  stuily,  at  that  period,  embraced 
"the  seven  liberal  arts,"'  three  of  which  —  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric  — 
composed  what  was  called  the  iricinm  (the  triple  way  to  eloquence);  and 
the  remaining  four  —  music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy  — 
constituted  the  qnadnvinm  (the  quadruple  way).  'J'he  term  fticidUf  of 
arts  denoted,  in  the  universities,  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  philos- 
ophy and  science,  in  contradistinction  to  the  faculty  of  theology,  of  medi- 
cine, or  of  law.  Muster  (Lat.  magister)  was  used  to  designate  one  who 
taught  the  liberal  arts;  and  doctor  one  who  taught  or  practiced  divinity, 
law,  or  medicine.  'I'he  first  degree  (r/radna)  of  proficiency  in  the  arts, 
instituted,  as  it  is  said,  by  Gregory  IX.  about  the  middle  of  the  13th 


^  ASSOCIATION  — ASTRONOMY  S3 

century,  was  that  of  bachelor  (Lat.  haccalaureus);  and  the  second  that 
of  master,  which  originally  conferred  the  right,  and  indeed  imposed  the 
duty,  of  teaching  one  or  more  of  the  liberal  arts.  This  title,  in  the  colleges 
and  universities  of  the  United  States,  England,  and  France,  is  now  merely 
honorary.      (See  Degrees.) 

ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS,  By  this  is  meant  that  relation  or 
connection  which  is  formed  between  ideas,  so  that  one  immediately  suggests 
,  .  .  the  other,  hence  called  by  Dr.  Brown  the  jmnciple  of  simple 
Uepu  .on.  g,^f-igggiiQ-n^  'j'ljjg  \r^^Y  of  ii^ental  operation  demands  a  most  care- 
ful consideration  in  both  moral  and  intellectual  education.  Feelings  of 
pleasure  and  pain  are  often  associated  with  certain  ideas  or  objects  in  the 
minds  of  pupils  at  school,  and  thus  control  their  whole  after  life.  Antip- 
athies, prejudices,  or  predilections  are  th;is  so  firmly  fixed, 
Apphca-  ^]j,^(-  ^[jgy  ^^^^  never  be  eradicated.  The  law  of  association, 
/e  V"  rightly  applied  by  the  teacher,  may  thus  be  used  to  establish 
in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  an  abhorrence  of  meanness  and  wrong, 
of  falsehood  and  dishonesty  which  will  go  far  toward  forming  a  thoroughly 
virtuous  character.  This  law  has  a  very  important  application  in  the  in- 
tellectual training  of  the  young,  and  in  the  general  cultivation  of  the  mind. 
The  power  to  control  the  succession  of  our  ideas  or  thoughts  very  much 
depends  upon  the  habits  we  may  have  formed  in  establishing  these  associa- 
tions. If  the  ideas  with  which  a  person's  mind  is  stored  are  connected 
only  by  arbitrary  or  accidental  associations,  he  will  find  it  difficult  to  ar- 
range his  thoughts  on  any  subject  in  a  regular,  logical  order.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  minds  so  trained  as  to  be  able,  at  any  moment,  to 
command  their  ideas  upon  any  subject  with  which  they  are  acquainted,  so 
that  they  flow  forth  in  an  unintei'mitting  logical  stream.  This  is  the  in- 
tellectual quality  to  be  aimed  at  by  the  teacher,  in  connection  with  the  as- 
sociation of  ideas.  It  follows,  too,  from  this  that  the  law  by  which  ideas 
become  permanently  associated  by  means  of  repetition,  should  have  a  most 
important  place  in  the  consideration  of  the  teacher.  Certain  branches  of 
knowledge  rec[uire  the  special  application  of  this  law;  such  as  arithmetical 
tables,  grammatical  paradigms,  and  all  other  things  that,  having  no  logical 
relations,  are  to  be  arbitrarily  associated.  The  point  to  be  gained  in  such 
acquisitions  is  to  connect  these  ideas  in  the  mind  in  such  a  way  that  one 
will  instantly,  and,  as  it  were,  automatically,  suggest  the  other.  'J'he  per- 
ceptions of  sight  and  hearing  may  both  be  brought  into  play  in  accomplish- 
ing this.  Hence  the  use  of  the  blackboard  and  slate,  particularly  the 
former;  also  the  importance  of  repeating  aloud  from  the  printed  page. 

ASTRONOMY  (Gr.  acrrpm',  a  star,  and  vo/in^,  a  law),  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  has  peculiarly  strong  claims  to  a 
place  in  ever}'  educational  scheme  of  study,  both  as  a  means 
Place  in  ^^  intellectual  training,  and  on  account  of  the  practical  value 
e  uca  ion.  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  which  it  embraces,  as  well  as  its  ennobling 
influence  upon  the  mind  of  the  student. 

In   teaching  this   subject,  the   order   of  investigation  —  the  analytic 

method,  should  be  at  first  adopted,  for  two  reasons:  (1)  because  in  this 

,     ,  ..      way  we    are  able  to  impress    upon   the    mind   of  the    pupil 

method     clearer  conceptions  of   fundamental  facts,   and  (2)   because  he 

required,    will  thus  form  the  habits  of  thought  which  are  particularly 


34  ASTRONOMV 

needed  in  the  study  of  this  science.  We  should  insist  upon  liis  observing 
for  himself  all  the  more  obvious  phenomena,  and  then  stating,  as  fully 
and  accurately  as  possible,  the  result  of  his  observations.  It  is  astonishing 
how  many  persons  go  through  the  world,  lilling  the  nie.'isure  of  a  long  life, 
•without  casting  anything  but  an  indifferent,  uninquiring,  and  uninterested 
glance  at  the  glorie.^  of  the  stellar  firmament.  So  it  is  also  with  children, 
before  their  attention  is  attracted,  and  their  interest  aroused,  to  observe 
the  wonders  of  the  heavens.  The  teacher,  therefore,  should  lead  his  pupils, 
by  questioning  them,  to  notice  some  of  the  most  ordinary  phenomena;  as 
the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  and  the  moon,  the  pha.ses  of 
Obsertia-  ^|^g  latter,  the  apparent  diurnal  revolution  of  the  stars,  the  posi- 
tion  an  ^JQi^g  j^^d  apparent  movements  of  the  larger  and  more  conspicu- 
ous planets  aniong  the  .stars,  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides,  the 
solar  and  lunar  eclipses,  etc.  Finding,  from  such  questioning,  that  they 
have  really  been  inattentive  to  what  they  might  readily  have  observeil,  the 
pupils  will  strive  to  see  these  things  for  themselves,  and  will  thus,  in  a 
short  time,  acquire  such  an  cKperieuce  of  their  own,  as  will  enable  them 
to  pursue  the  study  with  interest  and  success.  As  soon  as  they  have 
acquired  a  clear  conception  of  these  natural  appearances,  their  attention 
should  be  called  to  the  explanation  of  them;  and  in  this,  for  a  short  time 
at  least,  it  would  be  well  to  let  the  pupils  try  to  think  out  for  themselves 
some  hypothesis  to  account  for  what  they  have  seen,  and  not  to  give  them 
the  correct  scientific  explanation  until  they  have  exhausted  their  own 
conjectures.  For,  it  is  not  so  much  facts  that  we  desire  to  communicate 
as  mental  habits;  and,  by  the  process  here  recommended,  whatever  facts 
are  finally  imparted,  though  they  may  be  few,  will  be  indelibly  impressed 
upon  the  memory.  This  process  is,  however,  strictly  in  accordance  with 
the  educational  axiom,  that  the  pupil  should  be  told  nothing  which  he 
may  be  made  to  discover  for  himself;  to  which  may  perhaps  be  addeil,  that 
he  should  be  told  nothing  until  he  has  endeavored  to  discover  it  for  himself, 
and  has  failed  in  the  effort.     (See  Sciknce.) 

After  this  preliminary  instruction,  an  elementary  course  in  astronomy 

should  embrace  the  following  topics  arranged  in  the  order  of  presentation: 

—  (1)  'i'he  earth  —  its  form,  magnitude,  motions,  etc.,  with  the 

-^^'"■^'"^  phenomena  connected  with  it,  and  arising  from  its  relations  to 
course*      ^  .  ^ 

the  sun,  such  as  day  and  night,  and  the  seasons;   (2)  The  solar 

system — its  general  arrangement,  the  bodies  of  which  it  is  composed,  with 
their  magnitudes,  distances,  periodic  times,  the  position  of  their  orbits  and 
axes,  and  their  apparent  motions;  (.3)  The  circles  etc.  of  the  sphere;  as 
equator,  equinoctial,  ecliptic,  meridians,  tropics,  polar  circles,  longitude  and 
latitude,  both  terrestrial  and  celestial,  declination  and  right  ascension,  the 
horizon,  vertical  circles,  altitude  and  azinuith,  etc.  If  the  preliminary 
instruction  has  been  correct  and  thorough,  these  various  tropics  can  be 
taught  in  such  a  manner  as,  at  every  point,  to  appeal  to  the  learner's  in- 
telligence, and,  not  as  a  mass  of  arbitrary  facts,  encumbering  his  memory 
for  a  while,  to  drop  out  afterward  as  useless  lumber.  For  example,  if 
we  would  lead  his  mind  to  a  clear  idea  of  the  use  of  longitude  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  we  ask  him  to  locate,  that  is,  to  describe  the  location 
of,  any  point  on  the  surface  of  the  globe.  lie  will  soon  be  led  to  perceive 
that  this  cannot  bo  done  without  some  standards  of  reference;  and  thus 


ATHENEUM  —  ATTENTION  35 

the  use  of  the  equator  and  meridians  will  become  obvious,  and,  in  a  eimilar 
nianuer,  that  of  altitude  and  azimuth,  in  locating  the  positions  of  stais  and 
planets  in  the  visible  heavens,  or  right  ascension  and  declination,  in  fixing 
their  places  in  the  celestial  sphere. 

JSo  part  of  tliis  science  need  be  taught  arbitrarily.    Even  the  numerical 

facts,  as  distances,  magnitudes,  periods  of  revolution,  etc.,  should,  in  part 

at  least,  be  worked  out,  however  rudely,  for  the  student  from  the 

-l  ,,    .       data  of  observation;  or  he  should  be  required  to  work  them  out 

'*■•'■  himself,  after  being  taught  the  principles  and  methods  involved. 
Thus,  the  teacher  may  begin  with  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  and  show  how 
this  has  been  determined;  then  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth, 
explaining  in  this  connection  the  nature  and  use  of  parallax;  then  the 
linear  diameter  of  the  sun  from  its  apparent  diam.eter;  then  the  sidereal 
year  of  the  earth,  and  the  sidereal  periods  of  the  planets  frou)  their  observed 
synodic  periods;  and  next  the  distances  of  the  planets  from  an  application 
of  Kepler  s  third  law,  etc.  In  this  way,  the  whole  subject  will  be  so  woven 
together  in  the  pupil's  mind,  that  it  will  be  impossible  for  him  to  forget 
its  fundamental  principles,  however  few  of  its  facts  of  detail  he  may  retain. 
xVfter  such  a  course  it  will  be  a  very  simple  matter  to  present  for  Ms  study 
the  other  important  topics  comprehended  in  the  general  subject. 

The  use  of  diagrams  and   apparatus  should  be  constantly  resorted  to 

in  giving  the  instruction  here   marked  out;  but  great  care  should  be  ob- 

served  to  prevent  the  use  of  apparatus  from  superseding  or  ob- 

Inagrams  gcuringthe  ideas  obtained  from  the  observation  of  nature  itself. 

and  rj^-j^g  student  must  come  down  to  the  apparatus  from  a  clear  con- 
ppa)  a  us.  j^gp^jQj^  Qf  ^i^Q  actual  j  henomcna,  using  the  n:acbine  to  apprehend 
the  manner  in  which  the  phenomena  occur.  Very  sim.ple  apparatus  is 
much  to  be  preferred  to  cumbrous  and  complicated  machinery, —  admirable, 
perliaps,  as  pieces  of  ingenious  ■workmanship  but  of  little  value  for  the 
jjurpose  of  illustration.  The  student  should,  however,  be  thoroughly 
practiced  in  the  use  of  the  globes,  as  a  very  essential  part  of  the  training 
comprehended  in  this  branch  of  instruction.  1  he  use  of  a  telescope,  of  at 
least  moderate  power,  is  also  a  valuable  means  of  augmenting  both  the 
interest  and  information  of  the  student,  especially  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  uranography,  which  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  useful  as  well  as 
entertaining  departments  of  astronomical  science.  In  this  part  of  the 
study,  a  good  planisphere  will  prove  a  valuable  adjunct. 

ATHENEUM,  or  Athensum  (Cr.  'A\'^7^raiov,  a  building  dedicated 
to  Athena,  or  Minerva,  the  tutelary  goddess  of  Athens),  was  the  name 
applied  to  a  temple  at  Athens,  in  which  poets  and  scholars  used  to  meet 
and  read  their  productions.  In  modern  times,  this  name  is  frequently  used 
to  denote  a  scientific  association  or  the  building  in  which  such  an  association 
meets.  In  Belgium  and  Holland,  it  is  used  to  designate  a  school  of  a  higher 
grade,  nnking  next  to  the  university. 

ATLA3  is  the  name  applied  to  a  collection  of  maps,  first  thus  used  by 
]\Iercator  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  figure  of  Atlas,  bearing  the  globe 
on  his  shoulders,  being  on  the  title-page  of  his  book  of  maps. 

ATTENTION  (from  the  Tatin  tendsre,  to  strain,  implying  a  strained 
effort  of  the  mind)  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  mind  s  activities, 
since  the  quality  and  duration  of  the  intellectual  impressions  depend  upoa 


36  ATTENTION 

^,        the  degree  of  attention  with  which  the  faculties  have  been 
,.     ^  exerted  in  acquiring  them.      There  is  no  point  of  difference 
^  '  between  the  trained  and  the  untrained  intellect  so  striking  as 

the  voluntary  power  of  fixing  the  mind  for  a  continuous  period  of  time 
upon  any  given  subject.  Hence,  to  discipline  this  power  becomes,  in  an 
especial  manner,  the  office  and  duty  of  the  educator.     Commencing  with 

the  most  rudiniental  exercise  of  the  observing  faculties,  he  passes 
Hoio        Qj^^  g(^p  jjy.  g^ep^  to  the  process  by  which,  through  the  entire  and 

determined  giving  up,  as  it  Avere,  of  the  whule  mind  to  the 
contemplation  and  study  ot  any  given  class  of  facts  or  ideas,  the  student 
learns  to  evolve  new  truths,  or  analytically  to  explain  the  intricacies  of 
abstruse  problems.  When  the  attention  has  become  obedient  to  the  will, 
this  branch  of  mental  training  is  complete;  and,  therefore,  the  aim  of  the 
educator  should  be  to  instill  habits  of  controlling  the  attention,  and  rigidly 
preventing  those  ot  desultory,  wayward  application,  or  listlessness.  i'his 
power  of  continuous  attention  is,  without  doubt,  the  most  valuable  result 
of  intellectual  trai  dug.  To  produce  this  result,  it  is  of  the  first  importance 
to  interest  the  pupils,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages  of  instruction.  Young 
minds  have  an  intense  desire  to  know — not  words  merely,  but  things. 
'J'hey  have  a  strong  craving  for  new  ideas,  and  take  the  deepest  enjoyment 
in  the  exercise  of  the  perceptive  and  conceptive  faculties.  Hence  the 
importance  ot  object-teaching.  The  perceptive  faculties  are  exercised  in 
the  observation  of  the  sensible  qualities  of  all  the  different  things  with 
which  the  child  is  surrounded,  or  which  may  be  presented  to  its  view  by 
the  teacher  tor  the  purpose  of  attracting  its  attention;  and  these  objects 
should  be  diversitied  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to  appeal  to  the  child  s  love 
of  novelty.  Hence,  there  are  three  things  especially  needed:  (1)  Constant 
change  of  exercises;  (2)  Sliort  and  well  adapted  lessons;  and  (3)  The 
presentation  of  ideas  before  words,  objects  before  names. 

On  other  accounts,  the  attention  should  not  be  exercised  for  long 
periods  of  time.  When  the  teacher  perceives  that  it  is  flagging,  it  is  best 
to  stop  the  exercise;  for  all  that  is  done  while  the  child's  attention  is  re- 
laxed, is  worse  than  fruitless.  It  is  from  an  inattention  to  this  truth  that 
children  are  often  made  incurably  listless  in  school.  They  are  set  at  exer- 
cises wiiich  awaken  no  interest  in  their  minds,  and,  consequently,  acquire 
ineradicable  habits  of  superficial,  careless  attention.  In  all  the  subsequent 
studies  of  the  pupil,  it  is  essential  that  his  interest  be  awakened  as  much  aa 
possible;  but  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a  reciprocal  action  of  interest 
and  attention.  The  pupil  having  acquired  in  the  first  stages,  in  some  degree, 
the  habit  of  voluntary  attention,  will,  as  a  matter  of  duty,  apply  his  mind 
to  the  studies  prescribed  for  him;  and  this  very  application,  if  earnest  and 
diligent,  will  soon  excite  the  deepest  interest  in  the  subjects  of  study.   The 

dependence   of   memory  upon  attention  is  well  known   to   all 
Memory    ^-^^^  \\^.\q  observed,  however  superficially,  the  operations  of  the 

,f" '.        mind;  and  the  power  to  recall  at  will  our  mental  impressions 
attention.  '       .  .  .       ^.  ,  ,.        ,     .  .  \ 

and  acquisitions  is  perhaps  directly  in  proportion  to  the  atten- 
tion with  which  the  associations  binding  them  together  were  formed.  When 
these  are  feeble,  loose,  accidental,  or  formed  with  little  volition,  the  mind 
will  have  but  an  imperfect  control  of  its  thoughts,  and.  consequently,  wiU 
be  wanting  in  the  chief  quality  of  a  sound  intellectual  character. 


AUTHOEITY  37 

Attention  requires  a  vigorous  exercise  of  the  brain,  and,  therefore, 
is,  more  or  less,  dependent  upon  the  physical  condition.    When  this  has 
been  exhausted  by  labor,  either  bodily  or  mental,  or  weakened 
Relation    ^^  disease,  attention  is  scarcely  possible;  and  the  effort  to  give 
■    jf'^fff,   it  is  injurious,  because  it  induces  still  farther  nervous  prost- 
■  ration.    Neither  should  deep  attention  be  exerted  or  attempted 
immediately  after  a  hearty  meal.     'Jlie  nervous  energy  is  then  directed 
to  the  digestive  functions,  which  active  cerebration  will  greatly  disturb. 
Hence,   the   diet   of    a   student    should   be   light,  but  nutritious.     The 
brain   should  also   be  supplied  with  thoroughly  oxygenated  blood.     No 
one  can  think  well  in    an   impure   atmosphere,  especially  if  it   is   con- 
taminated  by  the   breathing   of  many   persons.     In   this   way,  children 
often  suffer  a  serious  loss  of  health.     1  hey  are  crowded  in  apartments 
too   small   for  the   number  to   be   accommodated    and  very  imperfectly 
ventilated;  and,  at  tlie  same  time,  are  expected  to  give  close  and  earnest 
attention  to  the  subjects  of  instruction.    '1  his  is  a  physical  impossibility, 
and  the  attempt  to  do  it  must  always  be  followed  by  disastrous  results. 
In   no  respect  has  the  aphorism,    "A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body'  a 
more  forcible  application  than  to  the  exercise  of  attention.     For  what 
contrast  can  be  stronger  than  that  presented  by  the  poor  wretch  whom 
disease  has  bereft  of  every  mental  state  but  wandering  thoughts  or  ab- 
solute vacuity,  and  the   man    of   sound  health  and  a  well-trained  mind, 
■who  is  ready  at  will  to  concentrate  all    his  intellectual  energies  upon  a 
given  subject,  and  to  keep  them  steadily  fixed  upon  it  until  the  object 
of  his  investigations  has  been  attained!     (See  iNTKLi.ECxrAL  Kducatiox.) 
ATJTHOilllY  (Lat.  aucioritds),  the  right  to  command,  or  the  per- 
sons or  body  by  whom  the  right  is  exercised;  sometimes  also,  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  intellect,  the  power  to  inliuence  or  exact  belief. 
vlied'^i'   ^^  education,  the  term  has  especially  this  twofold  application: 
education    (^i  *^  the  discipline,  or  management  of  children;    (2)  to  their 
instruction.     'J  he  primary  authority,  both  in  respect  to  time 
and  importance,  to  which  the  child  is  subjected  is  that  of  the  parent;  and 
for  several  years  no  other  can  be  exercised  over  it,  except  in  loco  parendii. 
It  is  true,  the  state  extends  a  protecting  c  re  over  the  child;  but  only  by 
an  exercise  of  its  authority  over  the  parents,  requiring  them  to  perlorm 
their  proper  duties  as  the  natural  guardians  of  their  children.     AVlien  the 
parents  neglect  or  repudiate  these  duties  or  are  guilty  of  acts  in  contraven- 
tion of  them,  the  state  interposes  its  authority,  but  not  even  then  directly, 
upon  the  child,  but  only  to  place  it  under  the  authority  of  those  who  will 
better  care  for  its  interests,  and  perfotm   for  it  the  natural  duties  of  its 
parents.     The  right  exercise  of  parental  authority  is,  therefore,  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  in  the  edtication  of  the  child.     (See 
^^/^".'•/^     Home  Edfcation.)     If  the  child  from  its  earliest  years  has  been 
io)  I  y.  acf.yg|^Qjy,g^  ^Q  recognize  and   submit  to  the   authority  of   its 
parents,  firmly  but  judiciously  exercised,  there  will  be  ordinarily,  but  little 
diificulty,  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  in   making  his  authority  effective. 
The  child,  on  entering  the  school,  feels  for  the  first  time  that  it  is  under  an 
authority  different  from  that  of    its  parents,  to  which  it  has  previously 
learned   to   submit  with   unquestioning   obedience.     Its   first  imptilse  is 
perhaps,  to  refuse  submission  to  this  new  authority;   and  the  influence 


38  AUTHORITY 

of  the  teacher  over  the  child  will  greatly  depend  upon  the  manner  in 
which  obedience  is  enforced.  (See  Ijiscipline.)  In  the  authority  of  the 
teacher,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  parents,  two  elements  are 
Authority  combined.  —  one  that  attracts  and  encourages,  and  one  that 
^•^  f '•'^  curbs  and  subdues.  AVithout  the  former,  authority  is  arbitrary 
teacher.  ^^^^  violent;  without  the  latter,  it  is  feeble  and  often  power- 
less. In  other  words,  the  authority  that  truly  educates  should  be  founded 
not  alone  upon  fear,  but  upon  love  and  esteem  as  well.  The  authority  of 
the  teacher  is  not,  hke  that  of  the  pare  its,  based  upon  a  natural  law,  but 
is  delecrated  either  by  the  parents  or  by  those  who  stand  in  the  parental 
relation  to  the  child.  This  is  what  is  meant  when  it  is  said  that  the  teacher 
is  in  loco  jxireiitis]  not  that  he  has  exactly  the  authority  of  the  parent,  but 
only  so  far  as  it  is  not  limited  by  the  general  usages  of  society,  or  by 
special  contracts.  The  conscientious  teacher  cannot,  for  a  moment,  doubt 
that  it  is  his  duty  strictly  to  observe  these  limits;  since,  by  willfully  over- 
stepping them,  he  must  either  break  a  contract,  or  violate  a  most  sacred 
truest;  and,  in  either  case,  his  authority  will  be  either  weakened  or 
destroyed. 

Many  cases  will  arise,  both  in  the  family  and  in  the  school,  in  which 
children  will  refuse  submission  to  the  authority  of  their  educators;  and 
hence  the  mode  of  enforcing  authority  becomes  a  matter  of 
Enforce-  ggpjous  importance.  Authority,  of  course,  implies  a  control  of 
riien*  0/  ^j^g  ^yjij  qj;  those  over  whom  it  is  exercised;  and  the  means  by 
aut  io)  I  ij.  ^^j^j^jj  jjjjg  jg  ^Q  ]gg  obtained  will  differ  according  to  the  disposi- 
tion and  habits  of  the  child,  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  also  according 
to  the  character  of  the  educator  himself.  A  violent,  irascible,  morose,  or 
capricious  parent  or  teacher  will  have  a  constant  conflict  with  the  child, 
and  will  never  be  able  to  establish  his  authority,  to  whatever  extent,  for 
the  time  being,  he  may  compel  a  seeming  obedience.  Authority  should 
not  be  exercised  as  such;  "the  right-feeling  parent,"  says  Herbert  Spencer, 
"like  the  philantropic  legislator,  will  not  rejoice  in  coercion,  but  will  rejoice 
in  dispensing  with  coercion."  (S'^e  .Moral  Education'.)  In  this  connection, 
arises  the  question  of  the  propriety  of  corporal  punishment  to  enforce 
authority  in  the  family  or  school.  All  educators  are  agreed,  that  the  use 
of  physical  force,  if  at  all  sanctioned,  should  be  only,  as  a  il  rnier  rexsort, 
brou'dit  in  when  every  other  means  of  coercion  has  failed;  some,  however, 
coudeuui  the  "use  of  the  rod"  utterly.  Locke  assents  to  it  only  in  cases 
of  extreme  obstinacy. 

'J"he  principle  of  authority  has  an  important  application  to  the  mental 
as  well  as  the  moral  education  of  children.  In  the  earliest  stages  of  intel- 
lectual instruction,  the  child  must  receive  most  of  the  informa- 
Auihontj  ^JQu  imparted  to  it  on  the  authority  of  its  teacher;  but  modern 
til  men  a  principles  and  methods  require  that,  even  from  the  first,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  child  should  learn  for  itself  by  the  exer- 
cise of  its  perceptive  and  conceplive  faculties,  and  not  merely  on  the 
authority  of  its  teachers.  Much,  however,  must  be  imparted,  that  is  be- 
yond tlie  scope  of  the  child's  understanding  and  ex]ieiience;  and,  conse- 
quently, there  will  be  a  wide  range  for  the  operation  of  the  teachers 
authority.  It  will,  of  course,  be  greater  or  less  in  proportion  to  his  personal 
influence  in  other  respects,  and  particularly  in  proportion  to  the  confidence 


BACHELOR  39 

felt  by  his  pupik  iu  his  wisdom  and  attainments.  The  teacher  should  in- 
fuse into  the  minds  of  his  pupils  an  intellectual  independence,  —  not  a 
skeptical  questioning  of  everything,  but  a  thoughtful  investigation  of  the 
why  and  the  wherefore,  a  diligent  balancing  of  the  ■weight  of  testimony, 
and  a  habit  of  inquiring  into  the  ultimate  reasons  of  things,  as  far  as  they 
can  be  adduced.  This  will  impart  concentrativeness  and  activity  of  mind, 
and  call  into  exercise  the  judgment  and  reflection  upon  whatever  is 
presented  to  t4ie  attention,  whether  in  study,  reading,  or  conversation. 
Rousseau  severely  criticised  the  pedagogy  of  his  time,  for  basing  the 
science  of  education  on  the  princi])le  of  authority.  He  demanded 
that  the  pupil  should  not  know  any  thing  merely  because  it  was  told 
him  by  the  teacher,  but  because  he  understood  it.  ]le  should  not 
learn  the  science,  but  discover  it.  "If,"  said  he,  "you  give  him  an  au- 
thority instead  of  a  reason,  he  will  never  think  independently,  but  will  al- 
ways be  the  football  of  the  opinions  of  others."  Ihis  is  an  extreme  view, 
as  every  teacher  of  experience  must  know.  The  authority  of  the  teacher 
cannot  be  eliminated  in  intellectual  edvication;  since  to  do  so  wovdd  put  the 
undeveloped  understanding  of  the  pupil  on  an  equality  with  the  mature 
and  developed  intellect  of  the  instructor;  neither  can  its  just  limits  be  def- 
initely fixed.  '1  he  disposition  to  accept  the  statements  of  the  teacher  as 
truths,  when  not  fully  understood,  should  be  cultivated.  Modesty  is  often 
as  requisite  and  as  becoming  in  thought  as  in  morals.  The  great  principle 
to  be  kept  in  view  is.  that  authority  should  not  have  its  aim  within  itself, 
but  that  its  object  should  be  to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  pupil,  so  that 
he  may  fully  understand  as  true  and  right,  what  he  has  received  on  the 
authority  of  the  teacher. 

'J"he  following  ])ractical  principles  are  enjoined  in  a  recent  publication 
of  great  merit:  "(1)  Restraints  should  be  as  few  as  the  situation  admits 
.  of.  (2)  Duties  and  offenses  should  be  definitely  expressed,  so 
vrbiciile  ^^  *°  '^^  clearly  understood.  (3)  Offenses  should  be  graduated 
according  to  their  degree  of  heinousness.  (4)  The  application 
of  punishment  should  be  regulated  according  to  certain  principles.  [See 
Punishment.]  (5)  Voluntary  dispositions  are  to  be  trusted  as  far  as  they 
can  go.  (6)  By  organization  and  arrangement  the  occasions  of  disorder 
are  avoided.  (7)  Ihe  awe  or  influence  of  authority  is  maintained  by  a 
certain  formality  and  state.  (8)  It  is  understood  that  authority,  with  all 
its  appurtenances,  exists  for  the  benefit  of  the  governed,  and  not  as  the 
perquisite  of  the  governor.  (9)  The  operation  of  mere  vindictiveness 
should  be  curtailed  to  the  uttermost.  (10)  So  far  as  circumstances  allow, 
every  one  in  authority  should  assume  a  benign  character,  seeking  the  benefit 
of  those  under  him,  using  instruction  and  moral  suasion  so  as  to  stave  off 
the  necessity  uf  force.  (11)  The  reasons  for  repression  and  discipline 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  made  intelligible  to  those  concerned;  and 
should  be  referable  solely  to  the  general  good."  See  Bain,  Education 
as  a  Science  (X.  Y.,  1881). 

BACHELOR  (Lat.  Baccalaureus),  a  term  applied  to  one  who  has 
reached  a  certain  grade  in  a  college  or  university  education;  as,  Baclielor 
of  Ar!s  (A..  B.,  or  B.  A.),  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law  (B.  0.  L.),  Bachelor  of 


40  BELLES-LETTRES  —  BIBLE 

Divinity  (B.  D.),  etc.  The  word  as  thus  used  is  of  uncertain  etymology. 
It  was  introduced  into  the  University  of  Paris  by  Pope  Gregory  IX..  in 
the  13th  century,  and  applied  as  a  title  to  those  students  who  had  jiassed 
certain  preliminary  examinations,  but  were  not  prepared  for  admission 
into  the  rank  of  master,  teacher,  or  doctor.  Afterward,  it  was  adopted 
by  other  European  universities,  to  indicate  the  lowest  academical  honor, 
as  now   used  in  this  country  and  Europe.     (See  Auts,  and  Uecreks.) 

BELLES-LETTRES  is  a  French  expression  for  polite  literature,  i.  e., 
books  and  language  in  so  far  as  they  are  shaped  by  the  idea  of  beauty.  It 
has  been  used  in  English  to  designate  a  somewhat  vague  class  of  studies 
connected,  more  or  less,  with  the  mastery  of  literature  on  its  esthetic  side. 
Some  of  the  colleges  in  the  United  States  have  had  a  professor  of  belles- 
lettres,  who  has  taught  rhetoric  and  elocution  mainly;  but  also  poetry,  prcse 
fiction,  criticism,  classical  philology,  and  the  humanities  in  general. 

BENEVOLENCE,  good-will,  general  and  habitual  kindne.'^s  of  dis- 
position in  oar  feelings,  not  only  toward  each  other,  but  toward  the  lower 
animals,  is  a  trait  of  character  which  should  receive  a  careful  cultivation 
in  the  education  of  the  young.  Children,  in  general,  are  not  naturally 
benevolent.  Their  undeveloped  sympathies,  their  active  propensities  and 
love  of  sport,  and  their  pronenes;  to  what  is  called  by  phrenologists  "de- 
structiveness",  incline  them  to  acts  of  selfishness  and  cruelty.  In  order  to 
check  this  tendency,  their  sensibilities  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be 
aroused  ;  they  should  not  be  subjected  to  harsh  or  inconsiderate  treatment, 
and  they  should  not  only  read  and  hear  stories  that  awaken  tlieir  .sym- 
pathies, but  should  be  made  to  observe  objects  of  compassion  that  require 
their  active  aid;  and  they  shouM  be  incited  and  encouraged  in  every  pos- 
sible way  to  self-sacrifice  in  relieving  the  sufferings  of  others.  In  their 
conduct  toward  each  other,  they  should  be  hal)ituated  to  lay  aside  their 
resentments,  to  forgive  injuries,  to  put  the  kindest  and  most  considerate 
construction  upon  the  acts  of  thoir  companions,  and  to  di.-^miss  from  their 
minds  all  suspicions  and  jealousies,  as  well  as  all  distrust  tlmt  is  not  based 
upon  indisputable  facts.  The  quarrels  of  children  may  for  this  purpose 
become  the  means  of  wholesome  discipline  in  instruction;  since  the  dis- 
putants themselves  may  be  male  to  feel  +-he  desirability  of  mutual  for- 
bearance, and  their  associates,  by  being  brought  in  to  aid  in  reconciling 
them,  may  be  impressed  with  the  beautiful  character  of  the  peace  maker. 
In  the  treatment  of  the  lower  animals  by  cliildren,  tliere  is  much  occasion 
for  this  kind  of  training;  and  the  skillful  teacher  will  not  fail  to  make  use 
of  the  numerous  incidents  of  school  life  to  impress  this  virtue  upon  the 
chill's  character.     (See  Moral,  Education-.) 

BIBLE  (Gr.  -a  (iipJa,  the  books),  the  book  which  contains  the  sacred 
scriptures  of  the  Jews  and  Christians.  The  use  of  the  Bible  in  schools 
has  been  for  some  time  a  subject  of  earnest  and  often  heated  discussion. 
Soma  regard  this  use  as  a  necessary  adjunct  to  every  system  of  education, 
secular  as  well  as  religious,  inasmuch  as  they  consider  the  Bible  to  be  the 
basis  of  all  religious  truth  or  spiritual  knowledge,  and  consequently  in- 
dispensable to  the  complete  development  of  the  mental  and  moral  character. 
Moreover,  it  is  the  view  of  this  class  of  educators  that  secular  and  religious 
education  should  be  alw.nys  intimately  conjoined.  Others,  who  uphold 
state  or  comu.ou  school  education,  which  they  regard  as  necfssarily  un- 


BLACKBOARD  41 

sectarian,  deem  it  impracticable  to  use  the  Bible  in  schools,  either  by 
study  or  simple  reading,  without  trenching  upon  their  unsectarian  character, 
and  hence  relegate  its  use  to  the  Church  and  Sunday  school.  Still  others, 
who  regard  the  Church  as  the  divinely  constituted  and  inspired  source  of 
all  religious  instruction,  oppose  the  use  of  the  bible  on  the  ground  that  it 
constantly  requires  the  special  exposition  which  only  the  Church  can  give, 
or  authorize  to  be  given.  For  a  full  account  of  this  agitation,  see  Cyc.o- 
pce  da  of  Edaoiti m, 

BLACKBOARD,  an  important  piece  of  school  apparatus  now  in  use 
in  all  classes  and  grades  of  schools.  It  is  generally  constructed  of  wood, 
and  is  either  attached  to  the  wall  of  the  room,  or  made  to  stand  on  an 
easel  or  to  revolve  in  a  frame. 

The  blackboard  for  the  use  of  the  teacher  in  giving  his  instruction  or 
explanations  to  the  whole  school  or  class,  should,  for  tlie  sake  of  conveni- 
-  ence,  be  placed  near  his  desk  and  in  front  of  the  pupils.  It  is 
f,  "^s-  'd  ^  great  advantage  also  to  have  sufficient  blackboard  surface  to 
admit  of  its  use  by  all  the  pupils  of  a  class,  or  by  sections  of  it. 
This  is  especially  desirable  in  higher  instruction;  but  even  in  elementary 
district  schools  will  be  found  to  be  quite  desirable.  Some  of  the  pupils 
of  a  school  can  be  employed  in  writing,  drawing,  or  working  out  arith- 
metical problems  on  the  blackboards,  while  others  are  engaged  in  oral 
recitation.  There  is  scarcely  any  branch  of  instruction,  or  any  kind  of 
teaching,  from  the  object  lesson  of  the  primary  school  to  the  lecture  of  the 
college  professor,  in  which  the  use  of  the  blackboard  is  not  found  to  be  al- 
most indispensable.  In  teaching  mathematics,  it  has  an  especial  value. 
Scarcely  a  teach3r,  at  the  present  day,  in  the  most  remote  country  school- 
house,  would  think  of  teaching  arithmetic  without  a  blackboard.  But  it 
is  a  most  important  aid  also  in  teaching  writing,  drawing,  geography, 
grammar,  composition,  history,  and  music;  indeed,  in  every  thing  that  ail- 
niits  of,  or  requires,  an  ocular  demonstration  addressed  to  a  large  number 
of  pupils.  Blackboard  d  awing  can  be  made  very  instructive  and  interest- 
ing, particularly  when  crayons  of  different  colors  are  used.  In  some  schools 
this  kind  of  drawing  is  carried  to  great  perfection.  Map-drawing,  or  rapid 
map-sketcliing,  on  the  blackboard,  is  also  very  useful  in  t  aching  geog- 
raphy. Recitations  on  this  subject  may  be  conducted  by  this  means.  One 
of  the  pupils  draws  the  outline  of  the  state  or  country  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  lesson;  another  fills  in  the  rivers;  the  next,  the  cities,  etc., 
till  the  map  is  complete.  As  the  study  of  maps  depends  so  largely  on 
the  proper  and  attentive  use  of  the  eye,  this  method  of  blackboard  instruc- 
tion cannot  fail  to  be  quite  effective. 

Blackboard  illustration  will  also  prove  very  effective  in  the  oral  teach- 
ing, by  a  series  of  lessons  or  lectures,  of  abstract  subjects  other  than 
„  .     mathematics,   such   as  logic,  metaphysics,  mental  and    moral 

,  .      r    philosophy,  etc.     By  this  means  the  divisions  and  subdivisions 

of  the  subject,  with  their  exact  logical  relations,  are  presented 

to  the  mind  through  the  eye,    and   a  much   stronger,  clearer 

and  more  durable   impression  is  thus  made.     For  an  excellent  example 

of  this  kind  of  teaching,  see  Mark  Hof  kins,  ^/i  OuiluiQ  Studi/ of  Man 

(New  York.  1876). 


42  BLIND 

BLIND,  Education  of  the.  The  blind  constitute,  in  every  country, 
a  numerous  class  of  afflicted  persons  for  whoni  special  iiislrudion  is 
needed.  An  institution  for  the  blind  should  comprehend  three  schools,  or 
departments;  namely,  the  literary  department  or  school  proper,  the  school 
-,  .  of  music,  and  the  iti'lusirial  school.  'I'his  organization  is 
Viganiza-  gggg^fi^j  [^^  order  to  give  the  general  instruction  which  every 

*""■  child  needs,  and  also  such  special  training  as  blindness  renders 
necessary.  In  the  literary  department,  the  course  of  instruction  includes 
the  branches  which  are  usually  taught,  in  the  common  and  high  schools, 
to  the  seeing;  the  principal  difference  being  in  the  apparatus  and  methods 
of  teaching  employed.  Instead  of  the  blackboard,  wall-maps,  slate  and 
pencil,  and  pen  and  ink,  there  are  employed  topographical  maps, 
App  lances.  ^jj^j^^gg^^j  books,  slates  with  movable  type  to  represent  numerals 
and  algebraic  signs,  geometrical  cards  with  figures  in  relief,  metal  tablets 
for  tangible  writing,  according  to  the  New  York  point  system, — also  for 
the  New  York  system  of  alphabetic  writing  and  musical  notation. 

The  first  efforts  to  instruct  the  blind  found  expression  in  an  attempt 
to  teach  them  how  to  read  by  means  of  the  fingers.  Many  alphabets  in 
relief  have  been  devised,  but  all  may  be  included  in  two  classes:  (1)  'I'hose 
composed  of  lines,  forming  the  ordinary  capital  or  small  letters  in  their 
original  form,  or  in  some  modification  of  it;  (2)  Those  in  v/hich  the  letters 
are  formed  of  raised  points,  or  dots,  in  no  respect  resembling  the  ordinary 
letters,  and  called  the  poi)d  alphabet.  'J'hese  can  be  both  printed  and 
written  in  a  tangible  form.  The  use  of  line  letter  text-books  in  classes  is 
very  limited,  from  the  fact  that  a  classification  according  to  reading  ability 
differs  entirely  from  that  based  upon  mental  capacity  and  attainments. 
For  this  reason,  the  instruction  in  each  of  the  depaitments  is  chiefly 
oral.  The  instruction  of  the  blind  in  music  is  of  paramount 
Music.  importance.  It  develops  and  refines  the  taste,  promotes  general 
culture,  affords  constant  and  inexhaustible  enjoyment,  as  well  as  the  means 
of  respectable  support.  The  musical  course  of  instruction  comprises  voice 
lessons,  part  and  chorus  singing,  lessons  and  practice  in  piano  and  organ 
playing,  and  a  thorough  course  of  teaching  and  training  in  the  tuning  of 
pianos.  Blind  organists,  teachers  of  the  piano,  and  piano-tuners  may  be 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Heretofore,  this  department  of  in- 
struction has  been  exclusively  oral;  but  there  is  now  a  piano  instruction 
book,  in  the  Neiv  York  point  system  (f  musical  7iolati(/n,  hy  which  the 
blind  pupil  may  learn  by  finger-reading  from  the  printed  or  written  page. 

'i'he  importance  of  mechanical  training,  in  comparison  with  other 
branches  of  instruction,  in  the  education  of  the  blind,  is  a  matter  of  vital 
.interest.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  instruction  in  trades  is  of  the 
■7^''.'^''."'"^"iirst  importance;  others  give  it  simply  a  place  co-ordinate  with 
taimnj.  ^^^^^j.  departments  of  teaching;  while  still  others  attach  the  chief 
importance  to  such  branches  as  lead  to  those  employments  in  which  skilled 
manual  operations  are  required.  The  latter  position  cannot  be  maintained, 
since  in  all  sucli  operations  the  guidance  of  the  eye  is  more  or  less  essential 
to  perfection  and  dexterity  of  manipulation;  from  which  fact  it  is  obvious 
that  purely  mechanical  pursuits  are  not  necessarily  the  best  adapted  to 
those  who  are  deprived  of  sight.  This  being  so,  it  is  a  great  nr.istake  to 
rest  the  education  of  the  young  blind,  and  the  prospects  of  their  future 


BOOK-KEEPING  43 

usefulness  and  welfare,  exclusively  upon  such  employments.  The  true 
plan  is  to  give  manual  pursuits  such  a  place  in  the  scheme  of  education  as 
is  required  by  the  conditions  which  blindness  imposes.  The  training  of 
the  young  blind  in  one  or  more  industrial  occupations  should  be  rigidly 
enforced,  not  because  such  employments  furnish  the  only,  the  best,  or  the 
most  available  means  of  future  support,  but  because  such  training  and 
discipline  of  the  head  and  the  hand  in  work  are  necessary  to  the  proper 
education  of  every  pupil.  Thus,  manual 'training  is  made  the  means  to  an 
end,  but  not  the  end  itself.  Male  pupils  are  taught  to  make  brooms, 
mats,  mattresses,  and  brushes;  to  put  cane  bottoms  into  chairs;  and  to 
perform  other  handicraft  labors.  Female  pupils  are  taught  to  sew,  knit, 
and  crochet,  to  use  the  sewing  and  knitting  machine,  and  to  work  a  great 
variety  of  articles  useful  and  ornauiental. 

BOOK-KEEPING,    a  system    of    recording  the  transactions   of   a 
business  so  as  to  exhibit,  in  a  plain  and  comprehensive  manner,  its  condi- 
tion and  progress.    The  usual  method  of  such  a  record  comprises 
i  o  e  oj      ^j^^  ^  history  of  the  transactions  at  the  date  and  in  the  order  of 
their  occurrence,   in  a  book,  called  the  day-book,  and  (2]  the 
classifying  of  results   iu  a    book  called   the   ledger.      This  classihcation 
consists  in  arranging   upon    opposite    sides   of  separate    statements,   or 
accounts,  all  items  of  purchixse,   sale,    receipt,   expenditure,  investment, 
withdrawal,  production,  cost,  etc. ,  which,  in  any  way,  affect  the  business. 
The  accounts  taken  together  should  thus  be  adequate  to  express  all  that 
.     ,  one  may  need  to   know  of  the  progress  of  the  business  and  its 

' .  condition  at  any  time.     The  simplest  form  of  record,  by  day- 

book and  ledger  only,  here  explained,  is  applicable  merely  to  a 
very  limited  business.  In  the  more  extended  and  complicated  enterprises, 
various  concurrent  or  auxiliary  books  are  required,  their  number  and 
character  depending  upon  the  nature  and  peculiar  operations  of  the 
business.  In  even  the  simplest  kinds  of  book-keeping,  it  is  customary  to 
use  an  intermediate  book  between  the  day-book  and  ledger,  called  the 
journal,  the  office  of  which  is  to  state,  or  separate,  each  transaction  so  as 
to  simplify  its  transfer  to  the  ledger. 

Double  '^'^^^  °'^^^  competent  system  of  book-keeping  is  that  known 

entrii  ^^  double  entry,  so  called  from  the  fact  that  the  complete  record 
of  any  transaction  requires  at  least  two  entries  in  the  ledger 
—  one  on  the  debit  or  debtor  side  of  some  account,  and  one  on  the  credit 
or  creditor  side  of  some  other  account.  The  terms  debit  and  credit 
(meaning  debtor  and  creditor,  and  usually  marked  Dr.  and  Cr.)  are,  for 
the  most  part,  used  arbitrarily.  They  are  really  significant  only  when 
applied  to  personal  accounts;  but  their  uniform  application  to  all  accounts 
is  a  matter  of  great  convenience.  The  charm  and  utility  of  the  double- 
entry  system  consist  in  the  philosophical  adjustment  of  mathematical  facts 
to  the  most  exacting  requirements  of  finance,  and  in  the  tests  afforded  of 
Underlu-  *^^®  correctness  of  the  work  at  any  point.  The  simple  principles 
inq  prin-  ""^erlying  the  system  maybe  succinctly  stated  thus:  (1)  All 
ciples.  financial  resources,  or  items  of  wealth,  are  measurable  by  the 
money  standard;  (2)  The  sum  of  all  the  resources  of  a  concern, 
thus  measured,  less  the  sum  of  all  its  liabilities,  is  its  real  or  present  worth; 
(3)  AU  increase  or  diminution  in  wealth  comes  from  one  of  two  sources; 


44  BOOK-KEEPINGf 

namely,  the  receiving  of  more  or  less  for  an  article  than  its  cost,  or  the 
appreciation  or  depreciation  of  the  value  of  an  article  while  in  possession; 
(4)  The  immediate  result  of  all  gains  or  losses  is  the  adding  to,  or  taking 
from,  the  net  worth  of  the  concern;  and,  consequently,  the  net  gain  or  net 
loss  of  a  business  during  any  specified  time  must  agree  with  the  increase 
or  diminution  of  its  net  worth  for  the  same  period.  The  foregoing 
propositions  may  be  said  to  be  self-evident  facts;  but  they  are  important 
facts  nevertheless,  and  such  as  any  competent  presentment  of  business 
aifairs  must  recognize  and  enforce;  and  this  is  just  what  double-entry 
book-keeping  does. 

The  science,  or  philosophy,  of  the  system  is  shown  in  the  ledger,  which, 
as  before  stated,  consists  of  uccounts.  An  account  is  a  collection  of  homo- 
geneous items  pertaining  to  some  i)art  of  the  business,  such  as 
,  ,  ",'^  ,  the  receipt  and  disbursement  of  money  (cash),  the  purchase  and 
sale  of  goods,  the  is  ue  and  redemption  of  notes,  the  incurring 
and  liquidating  of  personal  indebtedness,  etc.  All  accounts  are  alike  in 
their  structure,  each  having  a  title,  more  or  less  significant,  and  two  sides, 
with  the  items  on  one  side  exactly  opposite  in  effect  to  those  on  the  other  ; 
and,  like  plus  and  minuji  quantities,  each  canceling  the  other  to  the  extent 
of  the  lesser  side,  the  preponderance,  or  excess,  of  either  side  being  the  true 
showing  and  significance  of  the  account.  Thus,  the  debit  or  left-hand  side 
of  the  cash  account  contains  the  items  of  cash  received  ;  and  the  credit  or 
right-hand  side,  the  items  of  cash  disbnrseil ;  the  difference  ov  balance, 
wdiieh,  if  any,  must  be  in  favor  of  the  debit  side,  will  be  the  amount  of 
cash  on  hand.  Again,  the  debit  of  merchandise  account  contains  the 
items  of  the  cost  of  goods  purchaseil ;  and  the  credit  side,  the  items  of 
avails  of  goods  sold,  or  what  the  separate  sales  have  produced  ;  the  dif- 
ference or  /;r/A/»ce,  when  all  the  facts  are  shown,  being  the  preponderance 
of  production  over  cost,  or  of  cost  over  production,  as  the  case  maybe  — in 
other  Avords  the  net;/ain  or  net  luss.  All  transactions  which  mark  the 
progress  of  the  business,  having  in  them  the  element  of  gain  or  loss,  must 
occur  between  the  two  classes  of  accounts  represented  by  cash  and  ?«<??•- 
chandise  —  the  one  taking  cognizance  of  measuring  financial  worth,  the 
other  indicating  its  increase  or  diminution.  (The  mere  exchange  of  one 
fixed  value  for  another,  such  as  the  canceling  of  a  personal  indebtedness  by 
receiving  or  paying  cash,  should  be  called  a  liquidation  rather  than  a 
trtinsaction;  for  although  it  requires  a  complete  record,  the  same  as  the 
buying  and  selling  of  goods,  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  progress  of  the 
bujiiness,  having  in  it  no  element  of  gain  or  loss.)  'i'he  real  transactions 
of  tlie  business  being,  therefore,  divided  between  these  two  classes  of 
accounts,  we  have  in  the  one  class  — such  as  merchandise  —  the  in- 
dication or  statement  of  all  the  separate  gains  and  losses  which  have 
occurred,  and  in  the  other  —  such  as  cash  —  the  complete  measure  of 
the  net  resources,  or  real  wealth  ;  the  two  together  cstabli.-^hing  the 
satisfactory  concurrence  of  cause  and  effect,  or  assertion  and  proof.  'J'hus, 
the  accounts  of  assertion  or  cause  indicate  a  net  gain  or  net  loss,  while 
those  of  proof  or  effect  show  correspondingly  increased  or  diminished  net 
worth. 

'J'he  peculiar  methods  or  forms  of  recording  business  affairs  are  so  va- 
j-JQUS  —  owing  to  the  great  variety  of  manipulation  or  processes,  as  also  to 


BOTANT  45 

the  difference  in  the  estimates  of  a  competent  record,  that  tliey  cannot  be 
pointed  out.  The  general  conception  of  the  purpose  and  sphere  of  book- 
p  _  ^  keeping,  however,  may  be  stated  as  compassing  such  a  record 
(U7)06e  ^£  affairs  as  will  euable  the  proprietor  to  know,  at  any  time, 
0/    oo.i,-      ^^^  extent  of  his  wealth  and  of  what  it  consists.     Of  course, 

ptng.  ^^  ^j^^^  ^,^^j  worth  of  a  business  man  can  be  ascertained  at  any 
time,  the  increase  or  diminution  between  any  two  periods  may  readily 
be  obtained. 

BOrAtlY  (Gr. /3orai7/,  herb,  plant),  the  science  of  vegetable  life,  treat- 
ing of  the  elementary  composition,  structure,  habits,  functions,  and  classi- 
j,  .  .  .  fication  of  plants,  in  which  are  included  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees. 
'  ■  This  is  a  branch  of  that  general  descriptive,  or  empirical  science, 
called  natural  hixiori/;  being  based  upon  the  facts  of  observation.  The 
„,       .      educative  value  of  botany,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  the 

uc  ice  jj-^j^j-g  (Jev'elopment,  is  very  considerable, — far  moi-e  so,  indeed, 
than  its  usual  place  in  the  curriculum  of  school  education  would 
indicate ;  since  it  is  generally  superseded  by  subjects  which  seem  to  be  of 
more  practical  importance  to  the  pupil  in  his  after  life.  In  the  more 
modern  systems  of  elementary  education,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe,  particularly  in  Germany,  the  training  of  the  perceptive  faculties 
by  the  systematic  observation  of  objects  holds  a  very  prominent  place,  in- 
deed is  considered  the  basis  of  all  sound  mental  culture  ;  and  among  all 
the  objects  of  nature,  none  can  claim  precedence  in  point  of  variety,  beauty, 
and  interest,  for  this  purpose,  over  those  of  which  botany  treats.  The 
facility  with  which  plants  maybe  coUectel,  handled,  and  analyzed,  as  well 
as  their  general  attractiveness,  makes  them  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  ob- 
ject teaching.  Bugs  and  beetles  are  often  quite  repulsive  to  a  child,  but 
where  is  the  girl  or  boy  who  is  not  pleased  with  the  contemplation,  or  the 
manipulation,  of  leaves  and  flowers? 

For  the  purpose  of  this  kind  of  instruction,  and  as  an  introduction  of 
the  subject   to  young  minds,  the  chief  point  is  to  direct  the  attention 

„  of  the  child  to  the  most  obvious  characteristics  of  plants  and 

,.  ,  of  their  parts,  as  leaves,  stems,  roots,  flowers,  seeds,  etc. 
■  They  should  be  set  at  once  to  collect  specimens  for  themselves, 
and  be  shown  how  (1)  to  observe  them,  (2)  how  to  state  and  record 
the  results  of  their  observations,  so  that  they  may  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  the  words  used  to  express  the  characteristic  peculiarities  of  different  ob- 
jects. Here  will  be  afforded  a  wide  range  for  the  exercise  of  comparative 
observation,  in  the  perception  of  both  resemblances  and  differences,  but 
particularly  the  latter.  It  is  not  requisite,  nay,  it  would  be  injurious,  to 
teach  anything  of  classification  at  this  stage;  nor  indeed  is  it  necessary 
that  the  child  should  know  the  name  of  any  plant  the  whole  or  part  of 
which  is  under  observation.  Some  prefer  to  teach  the  names;  since  the 
child's  mind  has  a  craving  for  the  names  of  such  objects  as  interest  it. 
When,  therefore,  the  name  is  asked  for  by  the  pupil,  there  can  be  no  ob- 
jection to  the  teacher's  telling  it.  The  observation  and  description  of  the 
characteristics  are,  however,  the  essential  points  to  be  insisted  upon.     For 

,    ,  ,       this  purpose,  no  plan  can  be  better  than  the  "Schedule  Method," 
method       ^'^'^cnted  by  Prof.  J.  S.  Henslow,  of  Cambridge,  England.     Ac- 
cording 10  this  method,  the  jjupil  starts  with  an  observation  of 


46  BOTANY 

the  simplest  characteristics,  as  the  parts  of  the  leaf  —  its  blade,  petioles, 
stipules;  its  venation,  margin,  etc.  'I'he  general  ajipearance  of  these  may 
be  at  first  represented  by  pictures,  but  only  to  enable  the  learner  to  study 
the  natural  objects,  which  he  carefully  observes,  and  writes  tlie  charac;ers 
in  his  sciiedule,  attaching  each  specimen  to  it,  as  a  verification  to  the 
teacher  of  the  accuracy  of  his  observation.  (See  Youmaxs's  First  Book 
of  Botany.)  It  will  l)e  easily  seen  that  by  a  continuous  application  of 
this  plan,  the  pupil  will  ac(|uire  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  plants,  as  well  as  of  the  nomenclature  of  the  science;  and, 
moreover,  that  at  every  step  his  observation,  and  his  judgment  too,  will 
be  tiiorougiily  exercised  and  trained,  in  order  to  be  able  to  describe  the 
minute  distinctions  of  form,  structure,  color,  etc.,  that  are  subjected  to 
his  discriminative  attention.  This  process  harmonizes  entirely  with  the 
following  just  view  of  a  distinguished  educator:  "'J'he  first  instruction 
of  children  in  the  empirical  sciences  should  mainly  consist  in  exhibiting 
to  tliem  interesting  objects  and  phenomena;  in  allowing  them  to  look, 
handle,  and  ask  questions;  and  in  giving  opportunity  for  the  free  exercise 
of  their  youthful  imaginations.  A  teacher  may  guide  them  in  their  ex- 
plorations of  the  neighborhood,  direct  their  observations,  make  inquiries, 
give  explanations,  conduct  experiments,  call  things  by  their  right  names; 
but  he  must  be  careful  to  do  it  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  check  their  play 
of  fancy  or  chill  their  flow  of  feeling."  (See  Wiciceksham's  Methods  of 
lasir action)  Eut  the  young  pupil  is  not  to  be  kept  constantly  at  mere 
observation,  or  the  comparison  of  the  form,  structure,  color,  etc.,  of  leaves, 
flowers,  and  other  parts  of  plants;  his  a  tention  may  bj  called  to  the  simple 
facts  of  vegetable  physiology,  and  thus  shown  "how  plants  grow'' and  "how 
they  behave,"  as  well  as  what  they  are.  Such  inforniation  as  the  circu- 
lation of  the  sap,  its  use,  the  functions  of  the  leaf,  the  root,  the  flower, 
.  ,  ,   and  the  seed,  conununicated  in    an  annroi>riate  stvle  and  ex- 

.  ,  .  plamed  by  their  analogy  with  other  things,  familiar  to  the  mind 
of  every  child,  will  properly  supplement  the  knowledge  gained 
by  the  pupil  through  his  own  observations.  Jf,  after  this  elementary  in- 
struction, it  is  deemed  important  that  botany  should  be  studied  aa  a 
science,  the  pupil  must  be  gradually  trained  in  classification,  for  which 
the  foundation  will  have  been  laid.  In  this  branch  of  study,  as  in  all 
other  departments  of  natural  history,  the  mental  processes  to  be  suc- 
cessively performed  are:  (1)  Ob.servation,  wuth  the  view  to  comparison 
and  analysis;  (2)  Classification;  (3)  Induction,  or  the  discovery  of  prin- 
ciples, .so  as  to  embody  the  observed  facts  into  a  science;  and  (4)  Ap- 
plication of  the  scientific  principles  to  new  facts.  'J'he  elementary  ex- 
ercises already  described  conduct  the  pupil  through  the  first  stage  only; 
but  the  scientific  study  does  not  begin  until  the  third,  and  is  not  com- 
pleted till  he  has  become  practiced  in  the  fourth.  The  ol)servation  of 
common  characters  in  plants  will  necessarily  lead  the  mind  of  the  pu- 
pil to  perceive  the  ineihod  and  the  value  of  classification;  but  such  ex- 
ercises need  not  be  very  protracted,  since  it  is  natural  even  to  a  child 
to  generalize  and  classify.  He  will  soon  be  prepared  for  the  niethodicial 
^  study  of  systematic  botany ;  and  then  very  properly  may  be 

''^,    .        '  supplied  with  a  good  text-book.  But  the  pupils  must  only  use  it 
^'    as  au  auxiliary  or  instrument,  in  the  study  of  nature.    Let  them 


BOYS  —  BRAIN  47 

still  be  encouraged  to  collect  specimens,  to  notice  as  fully  and  accurately 
as  possible  their  peculiarities,  and  to  describe  them  by  the  proper  terms. 
Some  simple  means  of  drying  and  preserving  plants  will  be  very  serviceable, 
BO  that  the  school  at  "least  may  possess  a  tolerably  complete  herbarium. 

BOYS,  Education  of.     In  the  education  of  boys,  the  same  general 
principles  are  to  be  applied  as  in  that  of  girls;  and,  up  to  a  certain  a!:^e, 
in  their  school  education,  the  same  arrangements  for  discipline 
OOjec  s  o    ^^^  instruction  will  answer.     Education,  however,  rightly  con- 
e  ^ep  in    ^.^^^-^^^^  j^^g    fgp    jtg  object  to  aid  and  guide  the  development 
mew.        ^j   ^j^^   powers   or   faculties,  both  generic  and  specific,  of  the 
individuals  who  are    subjected  to    its   ministrations;    and,   consequently, 
its  processes  should  vary  with  the  character  of  the  faculties   which  are 
to   be   developed.     And  this  is  by  no  means  the   whole.     Education  is 
to  be  addressed  to  all  the  elements  of  character,  —  physical,  mental,  and 
moral.     There  are  propensities  to  restrain  and  subdue  as  well  as  powers  to 
bring  out  and  direct.     There  are  tendencies  to  good  to  cultivate  and  en- 
courage; and  there  are,  from  the  first,  those  of  an  opposite  character  to 
repress  or  extinguish.     There  is  not  only  the  intelligence  to  be  stimulated 
and  guided,  there  is  the  will  to  be  subdued,  —  to  be  made  subject,  not  only 
to  the  authority  of  the  educator,  but  to  the  conscience  of  the  educated. 
_.^  _,         Doubtless,  there   are   pnncii)les  sufficiently  comprehensive   to 
Discrun-     ^^^^^^^^  aH  these  considerations,  and  to  afford  a  safe  foundation 
xnation      ^^^  practical  methods  and  rules  sufficiently   minute   to  reach 
wee  e  .       gygry  case,  however  peculiar  or  eccentric;  but  what  we  wish 
here  especially  to  lay  down,  is  the  important,  fundamental  law,  that  edu- 
cation, claiming  to  be  scientific,  and  not  a  mere  mechanical  empiricism,  must 
take  cognizance  of  all  these  elements  of  human  character,  not  only  in  their 
average  condition  and  degree,  but  in  those  marked  diversities  which  con- 
stitute individual  character.     (See  Education.)    According  to  this  prin- 
ciple, boj'S  and  girls  can  never  properly  be  subjected  to  precisely  the  same 
processes  of  education,  because  their  natures  are  very  different, —  physically, 
mentally,  and  morally.    This  fact  is,  however,  not  necessarily  in  conflict 
with  co-education;  indeed,  it  may  be  an  argument  in  favor  of  it.    Children 
of  both  sexes  may  be  trained  in  the  same  family,  and  instructed  in  the  same 
school  or  class;  but  the  wise  parent  and  the  skillful  teacher  will  often  have 
to  make  a  careful  discrimination  in  his  treatment  of  them  as  boys  or  girls. 
BRAIN,  the  principal  organ  of  the  nervous  system,  and  the  fountain 
of  nervous  energy  to  the  whole  body.  It  is  the  seat  of  consciousness,  feeling, 
.     and  intellect,  and  also  the  recipient  of  all  impressions  made  on 
.    J*^,  ^.     any  part  of  the  nervous  system.     The  brain  being  the  organ 
especially  concerned  in  education,  its  hygiene  is  an  important  sub- 
ject for  the  attention  of  the  teacher.  I'he  development  of  this  organ  is  very 
rapid.     The  average  weight  of  the  brain  in  adults  is  about  48  ounces,  and 
this  limit  is  generally  attained  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years.     No  organ 
is,  from  the  time  of  birth,  so  regularly  and  so  incessantly  exercised  as  the 
_  .  ,  brain.   During  the  period  of  infancy,  nature  herself  superintends 

menf'     *'"^  process;  and  unless  her  care  is  interfered  with  through  the 
ignorance,  folly,  or  neglect  of  the  mother  or  nurse,  it  results  in 
a  healthy  growth  and  development.     "When  the  age  of  infancy  is  passed, 
and  the  chUd  is  surrendered  to  the  educator,  intelligence  and  skill  may 


48  BURGHER  SCHOOL  —  BUSINESS  COLLEGES 

accomplish  much  benefit  in  regulating  the  cerebral  development;  or  a  want 
of  skill  and  intelli^rence  may  do,  and  often  does,  very  great  injury.  Exercise 
is  the  natural  instrument  by  which  all  the  bodily  organs  are  brought  to  a 
How  "maturity  of  growth  and  strength,  and  by  Avhicii  they  are^kept  in 
regulated  ^  con<lition  of  health.  In  ajjplying  this  principle,  the  teacher 
should  see  that  the  exercise  be  proper,  (1)  as  to  its  kind,  (2)  as 
to  its  degree,  (3)  as  to  its  direction;  and  in  all  these  respects,  that  it  is 
adapted  to  the  age  and  peculiar  physical  condition  of  the  child  to  be 
educated.  The  same  process  will  not  answer  for  all.  The  teacher  who 
wishes  to  do  good,  Avhose  aim  is  really  to  educate,  will  study  the  external 
indications  of  temperament,  of  bodily  health  and  disease,  and  also  of 
cerebral  structure;  and  will,  as  far  as  possible,  regulate  his  operations 
accordingly,  'i'he  brain  is  exercised  both  by  thought  and  feeling;  being  the 
seat  of  various  faculties,  both  mental  and  moral,  its  activities  are  aroTised 
by  whatever  is  addressed  to  the  intellect,  the  conscience,  the  emotions, 
or  the  propensities.  "  I'he  firet  step,"  says  Combe,  "  towards  establishing 
the  regular  exercise  of  the  brain,  is  to  educate  and  train  the  mental 
faculties  in  youth;  and  the  second  is  to  j^ilace  the  individual  habitually  in 
circumstances  demanding  the  discharge  of  useful  and  important  duties." 
The  healthy  development  of  the  brain  may  be  prevented  (1)  by  wrono- 
exercise,  (2)  by  being  overtasked,  (3)  by  bad  physical  conditions,  (4)  by 
bad  nioral  conditions.  Overstrained  or  too  long  continued  attention, 
excessive  tasks  from  books,  committed  to  memory  under  the  pressure  of 
fear,  long  confinement  in  close  rooms,  and  hence  the  want  of  ])n)per]y 
oxygenated  air,  will  impair  the  functions  of  the  brain,  and  lay  the 
foundation,  not  only  of  future  disease,  but  perhaps  of  future  imbecility. 
So,  too,  when  subjected  to  harsh  discipline,  to  unkind  treatment,  to  a 
moral  atmosphere  vitiated  by  the  irritability,  ilhhumor,  and  moroseness  of 
the  parent  or  teacher,  the  brain  of  the  child  loses  even  its  natural  or  normal 
physical  condition,  and  its  growth  is  necessarily  morbid.  (See  Puysical 
Edccation.) 

BURGHER  SCHOOL  (Ger.  Burgerscltule),  a  name  given  to  many 
pulilie  schools  of  a  higher  grade  in  the  towns  of  Germany,  designed  to 
educate  the  children  of  citizens  for  a  practical  business  life. 

BUSINESS  COLLEGES,  as  distinct  institutions,  are  the  outgroAvth 
of  the  past  thirty  years,  although  schools  and  i)rivate  classes  for  instnictiou 
in  the  commercial  branches— particularly  book-keeping  and  penmanship- 
have  been  in  vogue  for  a  much  longer  time.  Formerly,  most  of  this  kind 
of  in.struction  Avas  given  by  a  few  private  teachers  in  the  large  cities  (who 
generally  united  the  duties  of  teacher  Avith  those  of  public  accountant), 
and  by  itinerant  professors  who  traveled  from  place  to  place,  teaching 
special  classes  for  a  limited  number  of  lessons  at  low  rates.  The  utility  of 
this  practical  training  was  readily  apparent,  and  as  a  matter  of  self- 
protection  no  less  than  of  self-respect,  the  established  schools,  public  and 
private,  were  induced  to  recognize  the  importance  of  the.se  useful  branches, 
and  to  supply  instruction  therein  in  more  liberal  measure.  'Jlierc  sprung 
up  also,  in  the  large  cities  and  villages,  schools,  making  the  practical  studies 
a  si^ecialty,  and  calling  themselves  commercud ov inej-cayUile  colleges.  Some 
of  them  were  organized  under  state  charters  and  authorized  to  issue 
diplomas  in  due  form.     These  institutions  placed  themselves  before  the 


CALISTHENICS  49 

Eublic  as  professional  schools,  assuming  the  same  relations  to  the  future 
usiness-man  as  those  which  already  existed  between  the  medical,  law,  and 
theological  schools,  and  the  members  of  those  various  professions.  See 
Cyclopoedia   of  Education. 


CALISTHENICS  (Gr.  KaUq  beautiful,  and  c-^hog  strength),  a  sys- 
tem of  physical  exercises  for  females,  designed  to  promote  strength  and 
gracefulness  of  movement ;  or,  by  assisting  the  natural  and  harmonious 
development  of  the  muscular  system,  to  improve  the  health,  and  add  to  the 
beauty  of  personal  appearance.  Calisthenic  and  gynmastic  exercises  are 
On  lohat  ^'^^^^  ^"^  ^^^'^  same  principle, — that  exercise  is  essential  to  the 
vrinchles  P'^'^P^'"  development  of  the  physical  as  well  as  mental  facuUies, 

haseJ.  ^^^^  ^^  *^^  maintenance  of  their  healthy  condition ;  and  that, 
in  education,  it  is  requisite  that  suitable  exercises  should 
be  systematically  employed.  The  only  difference  between  calisthenics 
and  gymnastics  consists  in  the  adaptation  of  the  former  to  the  physical 
education  of  girla ;  and,  of  course,  the  exercises  employed  require  a  less 
violent  muscular  action.  These  exercises  may  be  practiced  with  or  without 
apparatus.  The  latter,  which  should  be  employed  first,  consist  in  such 
movements  as  bring  into  regular  and  systematic  operation  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  movements  are  neither  violent  nor  complicated,  being  in  fact 
only  such  as  are  required  in  the  ordinary  exercise  of  the  limbs.  Their 
Peculiar  *^^^'''*'^3^  over  those  required  in  the  common  active  sports  of 
value  of  ^^''^^  consists  in  their  systematic  regulation  so  as  to  insure  an 
equal  and  regular  action  of  the  muscles ;  while  long  continued 
sports  of  any  particular  kind,  such  as  trundling  the  hoop,  using  the  skip- 
ping-rope, etc.,  have  the  reverse  effect.  Calisthenic  exercises  should, 
How  used  however,  be  so  varied  as  to  exhilarate  the  spirits  as  well  as 
■  task  the  muscles,  or  they  will  lose  much  of  their  beneficial 
effect ;  since  while  the  body  is  exercised,  the  mind  must  be  interested. 
The  simplest  apparatus  used  consists  of  wands  or  poles,  dumb-bells,  back- 
boards, elastic  bands  with  handles,  light  weights,  etc.  With  such  instru- 
ments, a  great  variety  of  beneficial,  graceful,  and  interesting  exercises  can 
be  performed  ;  and  when  whole  classes  are  exercised  simultaneously,  there 
will  necessarily  be  a  healthful  mental  excitement  mingled  with  the  physical 
training,  particularly  when  the  movements  are  regulated  by  the  rhythm  of 

UtilitiJ.  "^^i'^'  which  is  usually  the  case  in  modern  schools.  The  utility 
of  such  exercises,  when  properly  and  judiciously  employed  can- 
not be  doubted,  especially  after  the  age  of  1 2  or  14  years,  before  which 
they  should  rarely,  if  ever,  be  resorted  to.  Numerous  ailments  to  which 
females  are  peculiarly  liable  are  due  to  the  neglect  of  proper  physical  train- 
ing, and  may  be  prevented  or  cured  by  a  judicious  employtnent  of  cal- 
isthenic exercises ;  but  in  resorting  to  them,  certain  general  rules  and 
directions  are  to  be  kept  steadily  in  view.  They  should  never  be 
Eule.-i  and  W^p^^^^^'^  immediately  after  meals,  nor  very  near  the  time  of 
directions.  ^^^i^S-  .^^  digestion  cannot  be  properly  performed  when  the 
■_  system  is  in  an  exhausted  condition.  The  bc!st  time  for  exercise 
is  early  in  the  morning  or  toward  evening.  In  school,  these  exercises, 
being  of  a  moderate  character,  may  come  after  the  mind  is  wearied  with 


50  CALISTHENIUM— CATECHETICAL  METHOD 

protracted  intellectual  work,  for  then  they  will  prove  a  relief ;  but  intel- 
lectual efforts  cannot  effectively  be  put  forth  after  the  physical  system  has 
become  jaded  and  fatigued  by  protracted  exercise.  Calisthenic  exercises 
should  always  be  commenced  and  finished  gently;  indeed  all  abrupt  transi- 
tions from  gentle  to  violent  exertions,  or  the  contrary,  should  be  avoided. 
It  is  by  moderate  and  prolonged  or  repeated  exercise  that  tlie  physical 
or:^ans  are  to  be  developed  or  improved,  not  by  violent  and  fitful  efforts. 
1'he  weaker  organs  should  receive  the  most  attention,  so  that  the  whole 
system  may  receive  a  harmonious  development.  The  dress  should  be  light 
and  easy  ;  and  the  de])artment  in  which  the  exercises  are  taken  s-hould  be 
spacious,  cool,  and  well-ventilated.  All  such  exercises  require  to  be  prac- 
ticed with  many  precautions  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the  condition  of  the 
individuah  Teachers  may  be  the  means  of  doing  much  injury  by  indis- 
criminately requiring  all  their  pupils  to  go  through  the  same  amount  of 
exercise.  The  effect  upon  every  pupil  should  be  carefully  watched  ;  and, 
in  some  cases,  the  advice  of  a  careful  physician  should  not  be  dispensed  with. 

CALISTHENIUM,  a  newly  coined  term,  applied  to  an  apartment 
or  hall  in  which  calisthenic  exercises  are  practiced.  It  has  been  formed 
after  the  analogy  of  fppnnaf^inm. 

CATECHETICAL  METHOD,  the  method  of  instruction  by 
question  and  answer,  according  to  which  the  pupils  are  required  to  answer 

.  the  questions  of  the  teacher,  so  as  to  show  what  explanations 

Limita.     ^j^py  particularly  need  in  order  to  obtain  a  correct  knowledge  of 

'°'^^'  the  subject ;  or  sometimes  they  commit  to  memory  and  recite 
answers  to  set  questions  from  a  text-book.  'J  here  are  but  few  subjects, 
however,  which  can  be  properly  taught  in  this  way;  since,  in  training  the 
intellectual  faculties,  the  sequence  of  facts,  thoughts,  or  ideas,  is  more  im- 
portant than  their  clear  apprehension  or  expression  singly  and  disconnect- 
„, ,  edly.      On  this  ])rinciple,  there  are   several  objections  to  the 

vojections  catechetical   method   as   one   of  general  application:     (1)  The 

^  /*%  pupil  is  deprived  of  a  proper  exercise  of  the  expressive  faculties, 
me/io'.  i^^.jj^g  required  only  to  repeat  what  has  been  enunciated  in  the 
language  of  others  ;  (2)  The  logical  relations  of  the  facts  learned  are  apt 
to  be  unnoticed  by  the  pupils,  from  the  absence  of  those  intermediate  con- 
nective words  and  i)h rases  by  which  ordinarily  those relationsare  indicated; 
(3)  The  pupil,  by  learning  merely  the  answer  to  a  question,  fails  to  obtain 
a  full  idea  of  the  truth,  a  part  of  whicli,  and  sometimes  the  most  essential 
part,  is  expressed  in  the  question  itself.  '^I'hus,  if  a  pu])il  is  asked,  M  hat 
is  an  island?  and  ho  answers,  Land  surrounded  hy  tcf.ter,  he  does  not 
entirely  expres.s  the  fact,  but  only  a  disjointed  fragment  of  it.  Many  text- 
books constructed  on  the  cateclietical  plan  are  liable  to  this  objection  ; 
others,  however,  obviate  it  by  invariably  making  the  answer  a  complete 
statement,  the  gist  of  the  question  being  repeated.  Thus, the  answer  of 
the  question,  W/iat  is  an  island?  would  be.  An  island  is  land  surrounded 
hi/  water.  When  the  catechetical  method  is  employed  in  giving  oral  in- 
struction, the  teacher  should  be  careful  to  keep  this  principle  in  view.  _  A 
skillful  use  of  this  method  will  always  be  found  effective  in  opening 
^j-  ,    up  to  tlie  mind  of   the   pupil  the   fundamental  ideas  and  prin- 

uow  waae  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^  subject  previous  to  its  formal  study  by  the  pupil  him- 
C/e«a-c.    g^j^^  ^^^  ^^,^^^  difficulties  arise,  in  leading  the  pupil's  mind,  by 


CATECHISM  —  CHARACTER  51 

an  adroit  series  of  interrogatories,  to  such  an  analysis  of  the  statement  or 
problem  in  question  as  will  enable  him  to  apprehend  the  elementary  facts 
or  principles  involved,  and  thus  to  solve  the  difficulty  without  further  aid. 
This,  however,  is  not  so  much  an  application  of  the  catechetical  method  as 
a  skillful  use  of  interrogation,  one  of  the  most  valuable  and  indispensable 
means  of  imparting  information.     (See  Ixterrogation.) 

The  catechetical  method  was  formerly  very  popular  in  schools,  and 
almost  universally  employed;  but,   in  "proportion  as  mechanical  methods 

„„  of  recitation  and  rote-teaching  gave  place  to  such  as  appealed 

,  y  ,  directly  to  the  pupil's  intelligence  and  powers  of  expression 
"  the  mere  question-and-answer  system  of  instruction  became, 
discredited  and  was  abandoned.  In  its  place,  the  iopicnl  method  is  now  in 
quite  general  use.  This  requires  that  the  pupil  shall  give  a  connected 
statement,  not  simply  as  an  answer  to  a  question,  but  as  logically  expressing 
the  knowledge  which  he  has  acquired  in  regard  to  the  topic  assigned  by 
the  teacher. 

CATECHISM  (Gr.  Ka-ijxKyuoc,  instruction),  an  elementary  work 
containing  a  summary  of  principles,  especially  of  religious  doctrine,  reduced 
to  the  form  of  questions  and  answers.  The  name  catechism  for  a  religious 
work  of  this  kind  was  probably  first  proposed  by  Luther,  whose  two 
famous  catechisms  appeared  in  1529.  The  use  of  catechisms  in  formal 
religious  instruction  is  very  general,  the  object  being  not  only  to  present 
to  children,  in  the  most  lucid  form,  the  tenets  of  the  religious  communion 
of  which  they  are  expected  to  become  active  members  in  after  life,  but  to 
impress  these  doctrines  indelibly  upon  their  minds. 

CATECHUMEN  (Gr.  Ka-Tyjoty/n'Of,  instructed  by  word  of  mouth), 
the  name  given,  in  the  early  Christian  church,  to  a  convert  who  was 
receiving  catechetical  instruction  preparatory  to  baptism.  'J'he  catechumens 
were  divided  into  different  grades  or  classes  according  to  the  degree  of  their 
proficiency,  only  those  of  the  highest  grade,  who  had  been  pronounced  fit 
for  baptism,  being  permitted  to  be  present  at  the  administration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  This  appellation  was  afterward  given  to  the  younger 
members  of  any  Christian  church  who  were  undergoing  instruction  to 
prepare  them  for  the  rite  of  confirmation,  or  for  the  Communion,  in  which 
sense  the  term  is  still  used. 

CHARACTER,  Discernment  of.  The  perception  of  the  peculiarities 
of  individual  character  by  its  external  manifestations  constitutes  an  essential 
Its  import-  P^^Hminary  to  all  sound  and  judicious  educational  treatment. 
ancein  '^^^^^^.  ^^  ^^  endless  diversity  in  the  natural  inclinations  and 
education  ^^'^P^^ities  of  children;  and,  therefore,  no  system  of  education  can 
claim  to  be  scientific  that  fails  to  recognize  this  fact,  and  to 
supply  (1)  the  principles  and  rules  that  should  guide  the  educator  in 
discerning  these  individual  peculiarities,  and  (2)  the  practical  methods 
of  treatment  best  adapted  to  each.  Generally,  however,  education  is  carried 
on  with  but  little  or  no  such  discriminations;  pupils,  whatever  may  be  their 
Neqledof  temperament,  physical  condition,  state  of  health,  mental  capaci- 
ties, or  moral  proclivities,  are  treated  according  to  the  same 
system  or  plan.  It  is  true,  there  is  in  every  mind  a  kind  of  instinctive 
perception  of  the  peculiarities  of  character,  either  the  result  of  an  inex- 
plicable impression  or  prejudice,  formed  with  little  observation,  or  a  positive 


52  CHART 

judgment  derived  almost  unconsciously  from  an  attention,  more  or  less 
superlicial,  to  the  person's  appearance,  actions,  and  words  on  different 
occasions.  A  systematic  study  of  the  external  indications  of  character  has 
not,  however,  been  generally,  or  usually,  enjoined  vipon  the  teacher  as  a 
preparation  for  the  work  of  training  and  instruction.  Nevertheless,  the 
most  distinguished  educators  have  fully  recognized  the  principle.  "Let 
him  that  is  skilled  in  teaching."  says  Quintilian,  "  ascertain  first  of  all  when 
a  boy  is  entrusted  to  him,  his  ability  and  disposition.'' 

When  children  are  educated  at  home  by  private  teachers,  and,  indeed, 

always  in  that  part  of  education  whicli  belongs  to  the  family  or  home 

circle,  there  is  a  wide  scope  for  such  discrimination;  but  when  large  masses 

of  children  are  taught  together,  as  in  public  schools,  a  discrimination  of 

„    .      .     individual  traits,  and   a   corresj^onding  adaptation   of  method 

,      .?'^     and  requirement  becomes,  except  within   quite   narrow  limits, 

..  -^    '    impracticable;   still,  it  has    been   questioned   whether,   in   the 

organization  of  such  schools,  the  classification  of  the  children 

should  not  be  based  upon  other  considerations  than  merely  their  apparent 

proficiency  in  a  few  elementary  branches  of  study.      If  to  secure  these 

intellectual  acquirements  be  the  exclusive  end  of  the  teaching  to  be  given, 

the  usual  classification  is,  of  course,  proper;  but.  even  then,  it  should  be 

constantly  corrected  according  as  individual  capacity  unfolds  itself.     Some 

^  jtupils  will  make  much  more  ra})id  progress  than  others;  and  if 

,  fi-,.    these  are  kept  back  in  order  that  the  general  or  average  progress 

a-V    ^  t  ^^  ^^'°  '''^'*^'''  ™''^y  ^®  brought  u\)  to  a  given  standard,  their  future 

■  progress  will  be  greatly  obstructed;  their  mental  activity  and 

elasticity  will  be  impaired  by  the  want  of  due  exercise;  and  their  interest 

in  stufly  will  be  more  or  less  extinguished.      IMorcover,  not  finding  the 

natm-al  craving  of  their  minds  for  exercise  gratified,  their  sensuous  nature 

will  be  unduly  developed,  and  they  will  be  inclined  to  ^'hinge  into  frivolous 

and  idle  amusements.     In  large  schools,  conducted  almost  entirely  without 

any  of  the  discrimination   here  referred  to,  the  individutil  is  sacrificed  to 

the  mass;  and  many  a  bright  youth  loses  not  only  the  best  hours  of  his  life, 

but,  by  untoward  habits  and  a  want  of  due  training,  the  very  spring  of  his 

intellectual  nature.     The  moral  intluence  of  such  indiscriminate  treatment 

is  still  worse;  since  there  is  nothing  that  requires  so  delicate  and  careful  a 

consideration  as  the  proper  methods  of  guiding,  controlling,  and  training 

the  dispositions  of  children. 

CHART  (Gr.   x"P~Vi'   Lat.    cJ/arta,  a  leaf  of  paper),   a  large  sheet 

generally  of  pasteboard,  containing  a  synoptical  exhibit  of  letters,  words, 

colors,  plants,  etc.,  to  be  used  in  giving  instruction,  particularly  to  classes. 

This   is  a  very  useful  piece  of   school    ai)])aratus.   since    by   means    of 

...       it  the  eye  is  addressed,  and   large  numbers  of  pupils  may  be 

* '  taught  simultaneously:  while  the   teacher  is  relieved  from  the 

trouble  of  writing  out  or  drawing  on  the  blackboard  what  is  to  be 
presented.  Tn  teaching  Oi/or  by  object  lessons,  a  chart  is  indispensable, 
as  it  exhibits,  in  a  methodical  way,  the  objects  themselves.  Several  excel- 
lent charts  for  this  ]iuqiose  have  been  constructed.  Charts  are  also  very 
usefiil  in  teaching  j)honic3.  In  higher  instruction,  there  are  many  subjects 
in  which  the  \ise  of  charts  affords  an  important  means  of  illustration;  and, 
hencGj  we  find  in  school  rooms  charts  of  botany,  physiology,  chemistry, 


CHEMISTRY  53 

astronomy,  etc.  While  the  rapid  sketching  of  an  ilhistration  on  the  black- 
board has  many  advantages  for  certain  kinds  of  illustration  and  teaching, 
the  more  accurate  delineation  of  objects  by  charts  is  often  to  be  preferred, 
and,  therefore,  no  school  room  can  be  completely  furnished  without  sets  of 
these  articles. 

CHEMISTRY,  although  one  of  the  youngest  branches  of  physical 
science  in  its  development,  is  one  of  the  most  important  from  an  edu- 
cational point  of  view.  But  the  attention  may  be  so  readily 
.  "j  arrested  by  its  many  easily  recognized  points  of  contact  with  the 
individual  and  society,  in  its  numberless  applications  in  the 
household,  the  shop,  the  farm,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  the  industrial 
processes  on  a  grander  scale,  that  any  value  it  may  possess,  as  a  purely  dis- 
ciplinary agent,  may  be  overlooked,  even  by  teachers  of  it,  and  it  may  be 
regarded  too  much,  simply  as  a  low  utilitarian  element  in  an  educational 
course,  however  valuable  it  may  be  admitted  to  be.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
true  that,  in  recent  years,  much  that  had  contributed  a  peculiar  attractive- 
ness to  chemistry  as  a  branch  of  instruction,  seemed  inextricably  involved 
in  discussion.  'J'he  perspicuity  of  its  nomenclature,  the  precision  of  its 
statements,  the  simplicity  and  comparatively  limited  number  of  the  laws 
involved  in  its  most  complex  plieuomena,  were  all  apparently  affected. 
But  it  lias  at  last  emerged  from  this  formative  condition,  so  changed  to  be 
sure,  that  many  well  educated  in  chemistry  a  few  years  ago  may  be  obliged 
to  recast  their  knowledge  in  new  moulds,  but  with  a  systtsm  of  philosophy 
which  has  much  clearer  and  more  comprehensive  generalizations.  It  has, 
moreover,  lost  nothing  of  its  peculiar  character  as  perhaps  the  most  sharply 
defined  branch  of  physical  science.  The  changes  have  not  been  so  much 
those  of  abandonment  of  views  formerly  held,  as  of  their  expansion,  to 
provide  for  the  Avonderful  accumulation  of  facts  since  the  science  first  took 
form  about  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The  old  nomenclature  survives 
only  in  a  few  general  principles.  The  names,  being  out  of  accord  with 
established  and  accepted  facts,  were  too  precise,  and  expressed  too  much. 

In  teaching  chemistry,  three  methods  readily  suggest  themselves:  (1)  By 
text-books;  (2)  By  lectures,  accompanied  by  experiments;  and  (.S)  By  ex- 
, ,  ,  ,  -periments  or  investigations  performed  by  the  pupil.  These 
.  ,  .  .';  metho  Is  are  so  different  in  themselves  and  in  the  end  to  be  ac- 
'  complished,  that  they  cannot  be  compared  as  to  effectiveness; 
but  they  so  fully  supplement  each  other,  that  they  should  as  far  as  possible 
be  employed  together.  The  tendency,  at  the  present  time,  is  to  under- 
value the  text-book.  Whilst  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  by  itself,  it  yields 
the  least  return  for  the  time,  attention,  and  drudgery  of  both  teacher  and 
pupil,  as  an  adjunct  to  either  of  the  other  methods,  it  not  only  imparts 
fullness  to  the  knowledge,  but  also  renders  it  more  precise.  Another  inci- 
dental advantage  of  the  highest  character  consists  in  a  certain  facility  for 
reference,  which  its  study  imparts;  and,  in  many  cases,  an  ability  to  make 
use  of  the  literature  of  the  science,  and,  by  means  of  it,  to  study  up  a  sub- 
ject, or  investigate  a  particular  case,  may  be  of  far  more  value  than  a 
memory  thoroughly  crammed  with  facts. 

Lectures  accompanied  by  illustrative  experiments  are  generally  con- 
ceded to  be  valuable,  and  to  some  extent  indispensable,  aids  in  teaching 
physical  science.    Text-book  study,  however  faithful  and  earnest,  must  bg 


54  CHEMISTRY 

supplemented  by  them.  Tlie  facts  formulated  in  words  must  be  vitalized, 
and  re-enforced  by  their  olyective  reproduction.  Presented  thus  directly 
J  ,  ,  to  the  senses,  they  not  only  become  more  intelligible,  but  possess 
a  peculiar  charm,  that  impresses  them  i:pon  the  memory,  and 
renders  the  whole  study  more  profitable,  as  well  as  more  attractive.  But 
lectures  are  more  particularly  adapted  to  teach  the  general  principles  of 
the  science,  and  to  devclo})  to  its  fullest  extent  the  disciplinary  value  of 
the  mode  of  reasoning  employed  in  the  investigation  of  the  truths  of  nature, 
and  also  to  cultivate  the  faculty  of  observation.  'I'hey  are,  however,  not  at 
all  adapted  to  displace  the  text-book.  They  are  feeble  in  teaching  details. 
Simple  statement  and  re-statement,  and  illustration  combined,  will  not  im- 
press these  upon  the  memory.  If  the  pupil  be  required  to  take  full  notes, 
or  indeed  be  allowed  to  take  any  notes  at  all,  it  will  be  at  the  loss  of  much 
that  is  peculiarly  valuable  in  such  lectures.  AVith  the  faculty  of  observa- 
tion in  the  ])upil  geneially  untrained,  any  division  of  attention  between 
writing,  and  listening,  and  obseiving  will  greatly  reduce  the  proper  effect 
of  the  lecture.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  arrange  the  matter,  and 
bring  it  before  the  pupil  so  that  the  salient  points  may  impress  themselves 
upon  the  memory;  and  the  lecture  should  be  filled  in  from  memory  after- 
ward, or  it  may  be  a  still  better  plan,  in  many  cases,  to  furnish,  on  the 
blackboard,  a  very  brief  syllabus  of  the  lecture.  T?ut  much  of  the  effect- 
iveness of  a  lecture  is  lost  in  attempting  even  incidentally  to  teach  numer- 
ous details  by  means  of  it.  Jt  cannot  be  expected,  nor  is  it  at  all  necessary, 
to  reproduce  all.  or  indeed  a  very  large  proportion,  of  the  facts  and  proces- 
ses of  the  text-book,  in  order  that  it  may  be  fully  comprehended.  There 
are  many  facts  and  processes  in  chemistiy  that  possess  a  typical  character, 
aiding  directly  in  the  comitrchension  of  many  others,  and  these  arc  the  ones 
most  likely  to  be  drawn  U])un  by  the  lecturer.  There  is  no  branch  of  physical 
science  that  admits  of  a  fuller  illustration  and  verification  of  its  facts  with 
comparatively  limited  and  inexpensive  a])paratus.  nor  any  in  which  the  want 
of  thorough  practical  knowledge  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  experimenter  is 
productive  of  less  damage  to  the  apparatus  employed.  Up  to  a  very  recent 
date,  simple  entertainment  and  amusement  have  been  regarded,  almost 
equally  with  instruction,  as  the  objects  of  such  lectures.  1  he  most  sensa- 
tional experiments  that  the  science  and  the  means  at  command 
.'^"•'^^' could  afford,  were  impressed  into  service;  and  these,  too,  often 
periments.  j^^gg^y.  connected,  or  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  text-book. 
There  is  .still  unfortunately  a  residuum  of  expectation  of  something  of  this 
kind.  'J'hc  apparatus  and  experiments  with  it  are  apt  to  be  made  the  dis- 
play features  of  the  instruction.  "Whilst  simple  entertainment,  or  even 
amusement,  may  sometimes  legitimately  accompany  lectures  on  chemistry, 
it  should  be  only  as  a  natural  incident;  and  even  then,  .should  not  occur 
too  often,  since  it  is  apt  to  create  an  expectation  of,  if  not  a  desire  for, 
such  features;  and  this  will  seriously  divert  the  attention  of  the  pupils 
from  the  line  of  thought  which  should  always  connect  the  experiments. 
Every  experiment  should  come  upon  the  scene  like  a  well-trained  servant, 
just  at  the  right  point  of  time  to  add  its  proper  effect  to  the  total  effect  of 
the  lecture;  and,  in  no  case,  shoidd  it  control  the  lecturer.  An  experi- 
ment without  such  a  subordinate  relation  is  as  much  out  of  place  as  a 
word  without  proper  connection  in  a  discourse.    As  the  text-book  is 


CHEMISTRY  55 

largely  a  compendium  of  details,  its  somewhat  arbitrary  plau  of  arrange- 
ment, and  its  formal,  systematic,  didactic  treatment  must  give  way  to  ths 
„,  .  ,  more  instructive,  as  well  as  more  attractive,  Baconian  method  of 
'^^fl'^'^i  insinuating  knowledge  into  tlie  mind  of  the  pupil  in  the  manner 
in  which  it  was  c.iscovered.  Topics  should  be  taken  up,  dis- 
cussed, and  illustrated.  The  most  familiar  phenomena  should  be  noticed, 
and  the  lecturer  should  place  himself,  with  his  appliances,  in  the  position 
of  an  investigator, — an  interrogator  of  nature,  and  an  interpreter  of  her 
replies.  The  point  of  attack,  and  the  line  of  investigation  should  be  care- 
fully determined  upon  and  wrought  out,  so  as  to  evoke  the  most  valuable 
information,  and  exhibit  the  logic  of  facts  inductively  employed.  The 
pupil  will  readily  follow  the  investigator  in  his  alternate  inductions  and 
deductions,  as  he  "guesses  and  checks  his  guesses."  He  will  thus  not  only 
learn  the  subject,  but  acquire,  in  a  measure,  the  attitude  of  mind  by  which 
facts  are  discovered,  judged,  and  arranged,  and  by  which  also  they  may  bo 
j,j  .  ,.  turned  to  practical  account.  To  take  a  very  simple  case  :  car- 
■  bonic  acid  being  selected  as  the  subject,  a  burning  candle  may 
suffice  to  start  the  inquiry  which  will  lead  up  to  it,  and  f^r  beyond  it. 
Then,  out  of  the  numerous  questions  that  suggest  themselves,  the  chemist 
might  ask  whether,  as  the  material  of  the  candle  evidently  undergoes  a  radi- 
cal change,  the  air  surrounding  it  is  aifected  ?  It  is  placed  in  a  jar,  and 
covered;  it  goes  out.  Is  the  air  change  1  ?  Test  wiih  lime-water.  Yes. 
Will  a  splinter  change  it  in  the  same  way?  Try.  Yes.  It  is  then  allow- 
able to  guess  that  all  burning  bodies  affect  the  air  in  the  same  way.  The 
guess  may  be  checked  by  employing  a  wax  taper ;  then  an  oildamp  ;  then 
a  gasjet.  The  Inference  then  becomes  the  very  plausible  hypothesis,  that 
burning  bodies  invariably  affect  the  air  surrounding  them  in  such  a  way, 
that  it  will  render  lime-water  turbi  1.  All  would  be  satisfied  to  stop  at 
this  conclusion  ;  but  a  jet  of  burning  hydrogen  is  at  hand,  and  on  repeated 
trials,  each  time  with  greater  care,  it  fails  to  give  the  result  predicted  from 
the  hypothesis.  The  many  facts  only  led  up  to  that  degree  of  certainty  ; 
the  one  discordant  fact  shakes  the  whole  fabric.  The  case  is  now  looked 
at  anew.  What  have  these  bodies  in  common  so  as  to  produce  this 
identical  result  in  burning,  which  hydrogen  has  not  ?  Carbon.  A  piece 
of  charcoal  is  tried.  It  confirms  the  conjecture  which  led  to  the  experi- 
ment with  it.  More  cautiously  than  before,  the  hypothesis  would  then  be 
modified  to  suit  the  new  fact, — bodies  containing  carbon  in  burning  modify 
the  atmosphere  in  a  certain  way.  From  this  point,  all  the  leading  proper- 
ties of  carbonic  acid  could  be  developed,  with  but  little  more  apparatus 
than  may  be  found  in  any  household  :  its  specific  gravity,  by  pouring  it 
from  ordinary  pitchers,  or  running  it  off  by  means  of  a  syphon,  by  weigh- 
ing it  in  a  paper  bag  on  ordinary  scales,  etc. ;  its  solubility  in  water,  and 
the  solvent  properties  it  imparts  to  the  water,  by  jmssing  it  through  lime- 
water,  until  the  precipitate  is  re-dissolved,  then  re  precipitating  it  by  boil- 
ing the  solution,  etc.  The  other  constituents  of  the  atmosphere  are,  in  a 
similar  way,  readily  brought  within  the  range  of  inquiry.  Such  a  mode 
„„  of  treatment  has  for  the  pupils  all  the  freshness  of  an  original 

of  iJ  is      investigation.     It  arouses  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  quickens  ob- 
meih  d      servation ;   since  they  will  be  far  more  apt  to  observe  closely 
when  they  are  to  discover  what  is  to  be  seen,  than  if  required 


56  CHRIST   CROSS   ROW 

simply  to  see  what  is  described.  There  will,  moreover,  be  a  pleasing  sur- 
prise at  the  evolution  of  clear  general  principles  from  apparently  confused 
inquiries.  In  such  lectures,  a  s;?nsational  experiment  without  a  direct 
bearing  upon  th3  subject,  would  b3  entirely  out  of  place.  Humble  and  ap- 
parently trifling  experiments  are  frequently  found  to  present  the  truth  in 
its  simplest,  clearest,  most  intelligible  form.  In  all  cases  the  chemical 
^  .  notation  should  be  freely  employed.  All  reactions  should  be 
0  a  ion   (expressed  by  symbols  upon  the  blackboard.     One  fact,    how- 

■  ever,  should  be  continually  kept  in  mind  in  arranging  such  a 
lecture,  and  bringing  the  phenomena  before  the  pupils ;  namely,  that  in 
pupils  of  all  ages,  without  any  previous  training  in  this  direction,  the 
power  of  observation  is  generally  exceedingly  feeble,  and  that  they  can  fol- 
low the  lecturer  but  slowly.  They  are  very  a^ot  to  overlook  or  mistake  the 
feature  to  be  observed,  or  to  be  misled  by  soma  unavoidably  prominent 
accessory.  An  examination  upon  a  lecture  of  the  simplest  character  will 
reveal  this  fact.     The  most  salient  points,  even,  will  often  be  found  to  be 

_,      ..    wanting.     A  great  jiart  of  the  value  of  the  illustrations  of  scien- 

.    /    tific  lectures  in  our  higher  institutions,  and  of  the  highly  elabo- 

ihp  't  d    t  ^'^^^'^  popular  lectures  is  lost  for  the  same  reason.  This  difficulty 

■  may  be  remedied  in  a  great  measure  by  adding  the  other  method 
of  teaching  suggested  ;  that  is,  by  allowing  the  pupil,  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher,  to  perform  the  experiments  and  conduct  the  investigation, 
requiring  him  to  keep  accurate  notes,  and,  in  some  cases,  to  reproduce  the 
results  in  the  form  of  a  lecture.  Chemistry  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  tliis 
mode  of  instruction.  A  few  test-tubes,  flasks,  corLs,  etc.,  and  very  little 
material  will  put  it  into  the  power  of  the  pupil  to  reproduce  the  expla- 
nation of  many  facts.  lie  will  learn  more  by  a  few  failures  than  by  a  whole 
series  of  experiments  s  iccessfully  exhibited  in  a  lecture,  and  will  realize 
how  much  of  cac  and  painstaking  accuracy  must  be  expended  in  the  prep- 
aration of  every  successful  experiment,  lie  will  appreciate  the  importance 
of  the  most  trifling  essential  condition,  and  will  iind  that  here  no  over- 
sights, no  mistakes,  no  negligence  can  be  condoned;  but  that  failure  follows 
them  as  inexorably  as  effect  follows  cause.  lie  will  be  surprised  to  find 
how  apparently  t.'ifling  an  oversight  often  lay  between  him  and  success, 
and  will  learn  to  estimate  conditions  by  other  standards  than  their  ap- 
parent magnitude  or  importance.  He  will  thus  form  the  habit  of  observ- 
ing closely,  and  of  noticing  every  tiling  exhibited  in  the  course  of  lectures, 
and  will  carry  this  habit  into  all  the  affairs  of  life. — See  Daube.w  (Prof. 
Charles  (i.  B.),  On  the  Stivh/  of  Chemistri/  as  a  Branch  of  Education,  in 
Lectures  on  Education  (London  18")")). 

CHRI3T  CROSS  ROW,  or  Criss  Cross  Row,  a  familiar  designation 
formerly  applied  to  the  first  line,  or  row,  of  the  alphabet,  as  arranged  in 
the  ol  1  horn-books,  or  ])rimers.  In  these  books,  which  consisted  of  only 
a  single  page,  the  letters  were  printed  in  the  following  manner  : 
-f  Aa  b  c  d  e  fghijklmnopqrfstuvwxyzetc 
a  c  i  0  u  A  B  C  D  E  F  G  II  I  J  K  L  M  N  0  P  Q  R  S  T  U  V 
W  X  Y  Z. 

The  fir-t  line  commencing  with  a  cross  "vras  called  the  Christ  cross  row, 
or  briefly  the  cross  row. 


CHRONOLOGY  —  CLASS  C7 

CHRONOLOGY.     See  History. 

CLASS  (Lat.  classis,  from  Gr.  a^Mmc,  from  Knlrlv,  to  call,  because 
applied  to  an  assembly  of  the  people  when  called  together) ,  a  number  of 
jy  ^  ■,■  pupils  or  students  in  a  school  or  college,  of  the  same  grade  of 
■'  ■  attainments,  receiving  the  same  instruction,  and  pursuing  the 

same  studies.  When  large,  numbers  of  pupils  are  to  be  taught,  a  careful 
distribution  of  them  into  classes  becomes  requisite;  indeed,  nothing  is  so 
important,  previous  to  the  work  of  instruction,  as  an  accurate  classification. 
Heterogeneous  masses  of  children  cannot  be  instructed  simultaneously. 
They  may  be  male  to  perform  mechanically  certain  school  exercises, — • 
^  ,  .  may,  perhaps,  be  taught  to  read,  to  spell,  to  write,  and  to  cipher 
^  .?  to  some  extent;  but  it  can  only  be  by  rote,  without  the  due 
1^.  -^  *  exercise  of  their  intelligence,  and,  hence,  without  proper  mental 
development.  A  poorly  classified  school  can  never  be  really 
efficient,  whatever  talent  in  teaching  may  be  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  individual  teaching  has  many  advantages  over  the  teaching 
of  classes;  since  there  is  a  better  opportunity  to  observe  the  pupils'  peculiar 
traits  of  character,  and  to  adapt  the  instruction  to  them;  but  class  teaching 
approximates  to  individual  teaching  in  proportion  as  the  classification  is  so 
accurate  as  to  bring  together  under  the  influence  of  the  teacher  pupils  of 
a  like  grade  of  attainments,  and  of  similar  disposition,  temperament,  and 
mental  constitution.  Such  a  degree  of  accuracy  in  classification  is  ordinarily 
impossible;  but  this  is  the  ideal  standard  to  which  the  teacher  must  al- 
ways endeavor  to  approximate  in  organizing  the  classes  of  his  school, 
or  he  cannot  anticipate  success. 

A  proper  limit  as  to  the  size  of  classes  should  be  carefully  observed. 

This  is  difficult  to  fix  by  the  statement  of  any  particular  number,  since 

„.      ,        the  number  of  pupils  that  may  be  properly  placed  under  the 

,      ^        instruction  of  a  sins-le  teacher  will  vary  with  the  age  and  char- 

C  dSSGS  1      1  .  ^ 

acter  ot  the  pupils,  the  evenness  of  the  grade,  and  the  skill  and 
experience  of  the  teacher  himself.  When  the  number  is  between  50  and 
100,  or  over,  as  it  sometimes  is  in  large  city  schools,  of  course  no  proper 
result  can  be  effected.  "In  a  large  class,"  says  Reid  [Prhiciples  of 
Elucntion),  "ea-A  of  whom  seldom,  and  at  best  only  for  a  short  time, 
receives  individually  any  attention  from  the  teacher,  the  progress  is  slow, 
J..  ..  .  the  faculties  little  developed,  and  the  education  altogether  very 
.  imperfect."     The  danger  inseparably  connected   with  the  in- 

discriminate treatment  of  pupils  of  different  characteristics  has 
been  often  referred  to  by  experienced  educators.  Thus,  we  find 
in  a  work  designed  to  aid  practical  teachers,  the  following  important 
admonitions:  "  In  every  class,  however  well  graded,  the  pupils  will  differ 
much  in  age,  h  ^alth,  mental  capacity,  and  home  advantages.  A  correct 
and  julicious  classification  will  reduce  this  inequality  to  a  minimum;  but 
there  will  still  remain  a  wide  field  for  the  exercise  of  discrimination,  care, 
and  caution  on  the  part  of  the  class-teacher.  The  lessons  should,  in  all 
respects,  be  adapted  to  the  average  ability  of  the  pupils  of  the  class;  but, 
even  beyond  this,  some  allowance  will  often  have  to  be  made  in  the  case  of 
pupils  of  quite  inferior  mental  capacity  or  opportunities  for  home  studies;" 
and  further.  "  Teachers  are  especially  admonished  to  be  considerate  toward 
pupils  of  a  delicate  constitution,  an  over-excitable  brain  and  nervous  system. 


58  CLASS 

or  ill  temporary  ill  health.  Many  chiklrcn  of  this  class  are  precocious  in 
mental  activity  and  exceedingly  ambitious  to  excel;  and  the  greatest  care 
is  required  to  prevent  them  from  injuring  themselves  by  an  inordinate 
devotion  to  books  and  study."  (See  How  to  Teach,  N.  Y.,  1873.)  The 
comparative  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  home  (individual)  in- 
struction,   and    school    (class)    instruction   are  quite    fully  discussed    in 

,  Isaac  Taylors  Home  Educdtioa.     "A   principal  and  necessary 
Home  and    ■,■.■,■„    i  i       ..  i    4  iiT      +  *  •     ..1  • 

,         distinction,      he    remarks,  "  between    the    two  systems  is  this, 

that  while,  iu  the  one,  all  methods  of  instruction  and  modes 

of  training  are  or  may  be,  with  more  or  less  exactness,  adapted 

to  the  faculties,    tastes,  and   probable   destination    of    the   pupils   singly, 

and  may   be  accommodated  to    the  individual  ability  of   each;   in    the 

other  system,  that  is  to  say  at  school,  it  is  the  mass    of  minds  only,  or 

some  few  general  classes,  at  the  best,  that  can  be   thought  of And 

yet  even  this  undistinguishing  mechanism,  which  is  proper  to  a  school, 
and  which  carries  all  before  it  ^^■ith  a  sort  of  blind  force,  is  in  itself,  in 
some  respects,  a  good;  and  if  some  are  the  victims  of  it,  to  others  it  may 
be  beneficial.  There  are  children  who  are  not  to  be  advanced  at  all.  excejit 
by  the  means  of  a  mechanical  momentum;  and  such  might  well  be  sent 
from  home  to  school,  on  this  sole   account,  that  they  will  then  be  carried 

round  on   the   irresistible  wheel-work  of  .school  order Eut  although  in 

a  large  school,  even  when  broken  uj)  into  classes,  little  regard  can  equitably 
be  paid  to  individual  peculiarities  of  faculty  or  taste,  the  princijilc  which 
is  characteristic  of  home  education,  may  readily  be  extended  to  schools  not 
much  exceeding  the  bounds  of  a  numerous  family.  In  fact,  it  is  only  the 
personal  ability  of  the  teacher,  his  tact,  his  intelligence,  and  his  assiduity, 
that  can  fix  the  limits  within  which  the  principle  of  adaptation  may  be 
made  to  take  effect. "  The  number  of  pupils  that  f-hould  be  placed  in  a 
class  i.s,  therefore,  a  matter  requiring  the  utmost  exercise  of  good  judgment, 
taking  cognizance  of  all  attending  circumstances. 

AV'hat  should  con.stitute  the  JtnAia  cf  dassliiidlion  is  also  a  matter 
requiring  a  careful  consideration.  The  several  grades  of  the  c(.ur.«e  of  study 
„  _.  „  should,  of  course,  be  exactly  dtfincd,  and  all  the  i^ubjects,  or  parts 
,\  .„^  of  subjects,  prescribed,  should  be  carefully  adjusted,  so  that  the 
'  ?■  •  "  various  recpiircinents  of  the  grade  may  be  accomplished  simul- 
taneously, and  a  due  proficiency  in  cadi  n;ay  constitute  the  ba?is 
of  distribut'on  or  promotion  at  every  reorganization  of  the  classes.  Still, 
let  the  adjustment  be  as  nice  as  practicable,  ^onie  divcisity  will  Le  found 
at  the  end  of  each  period  of  instruction.  One  pupil,  for  exf,m])le,  will  have 
made  good  progress  in  arithmetic,  but  very  little  in  reading,  writing, 
grammar,  etc.  \Vhat,  then,  is  to  be  done?  If  the  average  jnogress  is 
taken,  pupils  of  such  unequal  attainments  in  particular  studies  may  be 
brought  together,  that  the  teacher  will  find  it  imposEible  to  give  instruction 
to  one  ])ortion  of  the  class  without  neglecting  the  other,  or  vill  be  obliged 
to  divide  his  class  into  sub  grades,  and  thus  .sacrifice  much  time  in  attending 
to  each  separately.  'I'his  difficulty  is  often.  mea.surably,  obviated  by  i^electing 
.«ome  one  branch  of  instruction,  as  arithmetic,  and  basing  the  classification 
upon  the  pupils'  attainments  in  this  subject,  working  constantly  thereafter 
to  bring  the  pupils,  as  far  as  may  be  necessary,  up  to  the  same  standard  in 
other  subjects. 


CLASSICAL  STUDIES  59 

Whether  a  school  is  best  taught  by  classes  or  by  subjects,  is  a  question 
that  has  received  much  attentiou  from  educators;  that  is  to  say,  ^vhelher 
-each  teacher  shall  instruct  a  particular  class  iu  all  the  branches 
Classesan  ^^  gtudy  which  the  pupils  arc  required  to  pursue;  or  whether 
su  jec  s.  ^^^j^  ^j^^g^  g^^^jl  1^^  taught  in  succession  by  several  teachers,  each 
one  taking  a  particular  subject  or  class  of  subjects.  The  diversity  of  at- 
tainments, mental  tastes,  and  special  skiU  among  teachers,  would  seem  to 
dictate  the  subject  system  rather  than  the  class  system;  since,  were  certaiu 
branches  assigned  as  a  specialty  to  each  teacher,  there  would  be  more  time 
for  the  careful  study  by  the  teacher,  not  only  of  the  branches  themselves, 
but  of  the  proper  methods  of  teaching  them;  and,  of  course,  better  work 
woull  necessarily  be  done.  Other  considerations,  however,  seem  partially 
or  wholly  to  neutralize  this  apparent  advantage.  The  success  of  a  teacher, 
especially  of  young  pupils,  depends  upon  his  thorough  knovvledg3  of  their 
disposition,  antl  also  upon  their  familiarity  with  his  ch  :racteristics;  and 
this  knowledge  it  would  be  difficult  to  acquire  if  the  teacher  were  required 
to  spend  but  a  short  time  with  each  class,  and  his  means  of  acquiring  it 
were  distributed  over  a  number  of  classes.  Some  educators,  however,  take 
a  view  directly  opposed  to  this.  "If  the  pupil,"  says  Wickersham,  "recite 
always  to  the  same  teacher,  he  may  become  familiar  with  certain  lines  of 
thought,  but  he  will  most  likely  be  confined  to  them.  He  might  be  trained 
by  a  more  unvaried  discipline,  but  it  is  a  discipline  in  one  direction.  He 
becomes  imbued  with  his  teacher's  peculiar  opinions,  acquires  iiis  man- 
ners, and  is  apt  to  create  a  little  world  in  which  his  teacher  is  the  reigning 
sovereign  and  himself  the  most  conspicuous  citizen  of  the  realm.  It  is  much 
better  for  all  pupils  to  have  different  teachers,  with  different  tastes,  talents, 
and  opinions;  but  it  is  very  important  that  this  should  be  the  case  with 
advanced  pupils."  Nevertheless,  it  has  generally  been  found  that  much 
better  discipline,  —  a  firmer  control,  prevails  in  schools  conducted  under 
the  class-teaching  plan  than  in  those  taught  on  the  subject  or  departmental 
system;  and,  consequently,  the  former  is  the  prevalent  mode  of  organiza- 
tion in  large  public  schools.  In  district  or  private  schools  consisting  of 
but  few  pupils,  and  in  institutions  of  a  higher  grade,  as  liigh  schools,  col- 
leges, and  universities,  the  other  system  is  invariably,  and  of  course  neces- 
sarily, employed. 

Instead  of  requiring  all  the  members  of  a  class  to  study  the  same 
branches,  some  schools  are  so  organized  that  pupils  recite  diff.^rent  studies 
,      in  different  classes.     This  method  has  sometimes  been  denomi- 
.^'    ,.    '   'a'xtQ'l  Si  ioone  classification.     It  encourages  unequal  attainments, 
•^  '  the  pupil  being  stimulated  to  do  his  best  in  each  study  without 

any  regard  to  his  pro:ress  in  other  studies.  This  is,  of  course,  a  great  dis- 
advantage. Besides,  it  requires  a  constant  change  of  classes  in  the  working 
of  the  school,  and,  consequently,  makes  the  discipline  more  difficult.  "I 
(recommend,"  says  AV^ickersham  [School  Economi/),  "a  close  classification, 
with  such  departures  from  it  as  overruling  circumstances  raav  make  expe- 
dient." —  See  AVells,  Graded  Schools  (X.  Y..  18G2);  AVickkksham, 
S.hool  Economy  (Phil.,  18G4);  Isaac  Tailor,  Home  Edncaiion  (London 
and  N.Y.,1H3(;);  Baldwin,  Art  ofS-linil  M ninqement  {'^ .  Y..  1881). 

CLASSICAL  STUDIES,  a  term  denoting  the  study  of  the  Latin 
and  Greek  languages  and  literatures.    The  word  classical  is  derived  from 


60  CLASSICAL  STUDIES 

the  Latin  word  dassicus,  that  is,  relating  to  the  classes  of  the  Roman 
people,  especially  to  the  first  class.     The  best  authors   known  to  the 

Romans,  both  Latin  and  (ireek,  were  rated  as  c'dsaici,  that  is, 
Mexning  ^  ^^^^  ^^.^^  cVa.ss,  or  d(is<icx.  The  expression  is  sometimes  used  to 
^^  '^  designate  the  standard  authors  of  any  nation,  but  it  is  chiefly  ap- 
term.  .  pjj^ j^  ^  jj.  ^^^  originally,  to  the  standard  Latin  and  Greek  writers. 
The  methol  of  teaching  and  studying  the  classical  languages  and  litera- 
tures mu3t.  of  course,  vary  according  to  the  object  or  purpose  for  which 

they  are  taught  or  studied.  In  some  schools,  the  study  of 
¥f  ^.^  th333  languages  (particularly  Latin)  has  been  adopted  for  the 
dt  'i^  ^"^^^  ^^  ^^^^"^^  purpose  of  showing  their  relation  to  the  English 
a»  s  u,  J.  jj^j^^^gg  a,nd  of  giving  a  clear  insight  into  the  meaning  ot  En- 
glish wordi  derived  from  them.  Where  this  is  the  exclusive  object,  a  com- 
paratively small  amount  of  time  will  be  found  sufficient  for  this  study. 
In  classical  schools,  colleges,  gymnasia,  etc.,  classical  studies  are  generally 
pursu:!d  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  and  developing  the  mental  faculties, 
and  introducing  the  stulent  to  the  literary  treasures  of  which  they  are  the 
keys.  It  is  obviously  of  the  greatest  importance,  that  the  teacher  should 
be  fully  conscious  of  the  precise  aim  that  is  to  be  attained,  and  that  the 
pupils  themselves  shoull,  as  sooa  as  possible,  be  made  to  understand  the 
„  ,  .  objects  and  alvantag3S  of  the  study.  The  first  reading  exercises 
(^ra^ies  oj  ^^.^j^  ^^  course,  serve  chiefly  to  familiarize  the  pupil  with  the 
*'" ''"'°  ^^'^^  grammatical  rules;  but,  as  soon  as  he  understands  the  peculiar 
structure  of  ths  language,  the  teacher  should  strive  to  unveil,  as  much  as 
possible,  what  is  beautiful  anJ  excellent  in  the  classic  authors  selected  for 
stuly.  Both  translation  and  explanation  should  aim  not  only  at  increas- 
ing a  knowledga  of  the  vocabulary  and  the  grammar,  but  at  the  training  of 
the  mind  to  comprehend,  to  appreciate,  and  to  admire  these  beauties  and 
excellencies.  The  finer  parts  of  a  classic  author  will,  of  course,  require  the 
greatest  anl  most  concentrate!  attention  of  the  pupil;  and,  therefore,  the 
greatest  possible  exclusion  of  mere  grammatical  explanations.  It  is  evident 
that  none  but  teachers  of  the  best  skill  and  attainments  are  competent  to 
give  this  kind  of  instruction.  The  college  grailuate  who  has  just  com- 
pleted his  course,  however  well  he  may  have  been  taught,  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  make  the  impression,  and  accomplish  the  success,  by  his  teaching, 
which  can  spring  only  from  a  professor  of  ripe  scholarship,  cultivated  ta.ste, 
and  experience  in  giving  instruction.  There  is  no  doubt  that  classical 
stu lies  have  suffered  in  repute  as  the  agencies  of  a  higher  education,  by 
the  mechanical  methods  employed  by  teachers.  The  letter,  and  not  the 
spirit,  has  been  taught;  and  the  consequence  has  been,  that  the  perusal  of 
the  sublimest  masterpieces  of  ancient  history,  oratory,  and  poetry  has  com- 
monly degenerate!  into  the  study  of  petty  grammatical  subtleties,  only 
puzzling  the  mind  of  the  student  without  informing  or  elevating  it.  Ts'ext 
,^  ,  ,  in  importance  to  the  employment  of  competent  teachers,  is  the 
'^  '  ^'''■'"  selection  of  proper  textbooks,  in  order  to  produce  the  best 
results  in  this  department  of  instruction.  The  books  at  first  needed  by 
every  pupil  are  a  grammar,  a  dictionary,  and  books  for  translation.  'I'he 
grammars  am!  dictionaries  used  shouM  be  those  specially  prepared  for 
pu]jiU;  for  the  wants  of  pupils  arc  different  from  those  of  teachers  and 
scholars.     As  regards  the  editions  of  classic  authors,  some  teachers  prefer 


CO-EDUCATION— COLOR  61 

texts  with  notes,  others  those  without  notes  In  the  former  case,  the  notes 
should  be  exclusively  calculated  to  promote  the  pupil  s  knowledge  of  the 
language  and  a  clear  understanding  of  the  writer's  meaning.  'J'he  use  of 
J,  ,  translations  is  generally  discouraged  by  teachers,  though  all  know 
iions  *^^'  "ponies'  are  great  favorites  with  students.  There  are  some 
educators  who  regard  a  judicious  use  of  translations  as  not  only 
not  hurtful,  but  commendable.  AV  hen  a  knowledge  not  only  of  the  classic 
language  but  also  of  its  literature  is  desired,  the  use  of  the  entire  work  of 
an  author  is  preferable  to  that  of  selections,  such  as  are  found  in  reading- 
books.  An  introduction,  giving  the  pupil  information  in  regard  to  the 
author  of  the  work,  facilitates  a  correct  understanding  of  the  work  itself, 
and  increases  the  pupil's  interest.  Geographical  and  historical  explanations 
should  be  given  wherever  they  are  needed.  'J  he  translations  should  be  at 
first  literal,  but  should,  invariably,  be  converted  into  good  PJnglish,  and 
should  reproduce,  as  much  as  possible,  the  excellencies,  as  well  as  interpret 
the  meaning,  of  the  original.  Of  course,  the  pupil  should  not  be  discour- 
aged by  too  harsh  and  minute  a  criticism  of  his  efforts.  Minor  faults 
should,  at  first,  be  passed  over,  and  the  pupil's  mind  gradually  trained  to 
facility,  accuracy,  and  elegance  of  expression.  —  See  Bain,  Education  as  a 
Science  (N.  Y.,  1881). 

CO-EDTJCATION  of  the  Sexes,  a  term  used  to  denote  the  system 
of  educating  males  and  females  together,  that  is,  in  the  same  institution, 
school,  or  class,  and  by  means  of  the  same  studies  and  methods,  pupils  of 
each  sex  receiving  the  same  school  training  and  culture.  See  Cyclopcedia 
of  Education,  and  Year-Book  of  Education. 

COLLEGE  (Latin  collegium,  originally  meaning  any  kind  of  asso- 
ciation) is  a  name  given  to  large  classes  of  educational  institutions,  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States,  England,  and  Trance.  The  academic  use  of 
the  word  colleije  began  about  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  and  orig- 
inated in  the  following  manner.  'J  he  students  who  flocked  to  the  uni- 
versity towns  often  came  into  collision  with  the  citizens,  and  frequent 
brawls  resulted.  In  order  to  protect  the  public  peace,  as  well  as  to  watch 
over  the  students,  lodging  houses  were  provided  in  which  the  students  were 
under  the  charge  of  a  superior.  These  houses  were  called  colleges:,  and 
this  name  was  afterwards  apijlied  to  any  academic  institution  of  a  cei'taiu 
grade,  whether  connected  with  a  university  or  not.  Colleges  appear  to 
have  been  first  established  in  Paris;  and  soon  afterward  in  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  in  Bologna  and  Padua,  and  in  Prague  and  Vienna.  They 
were  richly  endowed  by  popes  and  other  dignitaries  of  the  church,  princes, 
and  powerful  families;  and,  in  some  of  the  university  towns  just  named, 
they  became  so  numerous  in  the  15th  century,  that  almost  every  student 
of  the  university  was  a  member  of  some  one  of  the  colleges. 

COLOR,  as  a  branch  of  object  instruction,  is  of  great  interest  and 
value;  since,  at  an  early  age,  children  take  j^articular  notice  oflfelors,  and, 
p...,.,  .  hence,  lessons  upon  this  subject  furnish  an  excellent  opportunity 
lessons  in  ^^^  training  them  to  distinguish  resemblances  and  differences, 
and  for  encouraging  the  formation  of  those  habits  of  attention 
and  comparison  which  are  necessary  to  the  successful  study  of  other  sub- 
jects. From  the  fact  that  many  persons  are  found  to  be  color-blind,  it  is 
of  great  importance  that  suitable  lessons  should  be  given  children  to  enable 


62  COLOR 

teachers  and  parents  to  ascertain  whether  this  defect  exists  in  any  under 
their  care,  before  they  become  old  enough  to  engage  in  any  occupation  in 
which  color-blindness  would  be  an  insurmountable  defect.  Besides,  by  the 
early  training  of  children  to  observe  colors,  much  of  the  inability  to  dis- 
tinguish them,  which  is  commonly  not  discovered  until  later  in  life,  may 
be  overcome  by  education.  Furthermore,  a  general  knowledge  of  colors, 
and  of  their  relations  to  each  other,  is  of  importance  in  ntarly  every  avo- 
cation of  life.  This  becomes  especially  apparent  when  it  is  remembered 
how  much  depends  upon  color  in  the  manufacture  of  materials  for  dress, 
furniture,  household  decorations,  in  the  work  of  artists,  and  in  various 
other  kinds  of  employment. 

yince  a  knowledge  of  color  can  be  gained  only  through  the  sense  of 
sight,  the  methods  for  teaching  it  in  school  should  be  so  arranged  that  the 
-,  .  ,  pupils  may  have  abundant  exercise  of  this  sense  in  distinguishing 
colors.  For  the  first  lessons,  place  before  the  pupils  the  best 
colors  that  can  be  procured,  in  o)-der  that  they  may  obtain  correct  concep- 
tions as  to  what  are  good  7'eds,  yellows,  bines,  greens^  jnnphs,  etc.  Com- 
mence with  showing  a  single  color,  as  red,  and  leading  tlie  pupils  to 
compare  red  cards,  paper,  silk,  worsted,  etc.,  with  it.  and  thus  to  notice 
resemblances  and  differences  between  the  true  red  and  the  several  objects 
compared  with  it.  (iive  similar  exercises,  with  each  of  the  primary  and 
secondary  colors,  singly;  then  place  two  of  these  colors  before  the  pupils, 
and  let  them  select  articles  to  match  each  of  the  given  colors.  Proceed  in 
a  similar  way  with  the  other  colors;  and,  finally,  place  several  or  all  of 
them  before  the  pupils  at  the  same  time,  and  require  them  not  only  to 
point  out  the  colors  as  named,  but  to  select  colored  articles  to  match  each. 

Frequent  changes  in  the  mode  of  giving  these  exercises  on  color  will 

increase  the  interest  of  the  children  in  the  subject,  and  add  to  their  knowl- 

.,    .  edge  of   it,  especially  when  each  one  has  something  to  do  in  the 

'"'. ,  exercise.  After  tiie  pupils  have  learned  to  know  each  of  the 
exercises,  ^j^  colors  used  in  the  ])revious  lesson,  fresh  interest  may  be  given 
to  the  su})ject  by  supplying  each  child  with  a  piece  of  colored  paper,  tak- 
ing care  that  those  who  sit  side  by  side  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  hold  dif- 
ferent colors.  When  the  papers  have  been  distributed,  the  teacher  may 
say,  "  Now,  look  at  your  paper,  see  what  color  you  have,  then  fold  your 
arms  so  as  to  hide  your  paper.  Now,  look  at  the  color  which  I  show  you  ; 
all  who  know  that  they  have  a  like  color  may  hold  it  up. — Kight. — Now, 
look  at  this  color, — all  who  have  one  like  it,  hold  it  up."  I'roceed  in  the 
same  manner  with  each  color; — to  close  the  lesson,  reqttest  one  pui)il  to 
collect  all  the  red  papers,  another  all  the  blues,  another  the  greens,  etc. 
Similar  les.sons  may  be  given  for  the  purj)ose  of  teaching  children  to 
distinguish  shades  of  colors,  as  dark  and  light  reds,  blues,  greens,  etc. 

If  it  be  (k'sired  to  continue  these  lessons,  and  teach  that  the  six  colors 
previousl^hown  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — primary  and  secondary 

.       ^      — ])rocure  artist's  paints  :   red  (carmine),  yellow   (chrnme).  blue 

rrimmrf     (ultramarine);  also  a  small  palette,  and  a  palette  knife.     Place 

^^ .         a  little  yellow   and  blue  on  the  palette,  side  by  side,  requ(>stiiig 

secondary  ^^^  p^pUg  to  notice  what  colors  are  used.    Then,  with  the  knife, 

coois.      ^^^.^  these  two   colors  together   until  r/?rr»  appears  in  ])lace  of 

the  yellow  and  blue.    Then  ask  the  pupils  what  color  has  been  pioJuced 


COMMENCExMENT  —  COMPANIONSHIP  G3 

by  mixing  the  yellow  and  the  blue.  Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  to  mix  red 
and  blue,  to  produce  purple ;  red  and  yellow,  to  produce  orange.  The 
teacher  may  now  write  on  tlie  blackboard  for  the  pupils  to  learn  :  Mixing 
yellow  and  blue  will  produce  green.  Mixing  red  and  blue  will  produce 
purple.  Mixing  red  and  yellow  will  produce  orange.  Then  pupils  may 
select  the  two  primary  colors  that  will  produce  given  secondaries,  also  the 
secondary  th  it  may  be  made  from  two  given  primaries.  Show  the  pupils 
also  that  light  and  dark  colors  may  be  formed  by  mixing  white  or  black 
with  other  colors.  Provide  exercises  by  which  the  pupils  may  do  some- 
thing to  indicate  that  they  know  each  fact  taught. 

In  order  that  children  may  understand  harmony  of  colors,  they  must 
be  led  to  observe  that  to  produce  harmony,  the  three  primary  colors  must 
„  be  grouped  together ;    that  if    two  of  them  exist  in  a  given 

armony  ^^qq^^.^^-j^  i\^q  other  primary  will  harmonize  with  that  seconda  y. 
o/  coo)s.  r^_^  accomplish  this  result  by  teaching,  arrange  colored  paper,  or 
other  material,  so  that  red  and  grezn,  yellow  and  purple,  blue  and  orange, 
pah  green  and  violet,  may  be  compared,  and  the  sensation  noticed.  Request 
the  pupils  to  tell  what  colors  are  compared  in  each  instance  ;  also  whether 
the  three  primaries  exist  in  each  group  ;  as  well  as  to  observe  that  the 
colors  of  these  groups  harmonize.  Next,  compare  red  and  orange,  blue  and 
green,  yellow  and  green,  requiring  the  pupils  to  observe  the  effect  on  the 
sense  of  sight ;  also  to  state  which  primaries  exist  in  each  group,  and  to 
notice  that  the  colors  of  these  groups  do  not  harmonize.  These  lessons 
will  be  more  or  less  useful  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  exercise  which 
the  pupils  have  in  distinguishing  and  comparing  colors,  and  in  observing 
their  relations.     (See  Senses.) 

COMlMEN'CEaiENT  denotes,  in  the  United  States,  the  occasion  on 
which  degrees  are  conferred  by  colleges  and  universities  upon  their  gradu- 
ates. This  takes  place  in  June  or  July,  and  closes  the  scholastic  year,  so 
that  the  name  in  this  respect  appears  to  be  a  misnomer.  It  refers,  however 
to  the  beginning  of  the  student's  independent  career  after  being  released 
from  tutelage.  The  life  of  school  ends,  but  the  school  of  life  commences. 
COMIVEQN'  SCHOOLS,  the  name  given  in  the  United  States  to 
schools  maintained  at  the  puplic  expense,  and  open  to  all.  These  schools 
are  public  elementary  schools,  although  the  common-school  system  of  any 
state  or  city  often  includes  schools  of  several  grades,  as  primary,  grammar, 
and  high  schools,  besides  normal  schools  for  the  special  instruction  and 
training  of  teachers.  Common  schools  in  the  rural  districts  are  called 
district  szhools,  being  under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  officers  of 
the  school  district.  For  the  history  and  description  of  the  common-school 
system  of  each  State  in  the  Union   see  Cyclopaedia  of  Education. 

COJVEPA'N'ION'SHIP,  as  one  of  the  necessary  conditions  of  a  child's 

life,  is  an  important  element  in  education;  indeed,  the  influence  of  a  child's 

TTTt  companions,  either  for  good  or  evil,  is  often  far  greater  than 

,.     .  any  that  can  be  exerted  by  parents  or  teachers.      The  social 

,         ,      nature  of  a  child    is    stronger    than   that    of    an    adult;    and, 

therefore,  to  educate  it  by  itself,  excluding  it  from  all  intercourse 

with  children  of  its  own  age,  would  result  not  in  a  natural  or  normal 

development,  but  in  a  kind  of  monstrous  distortion.    The  selfish  principles 

of  its  nature  would  attain  a  disproportionate  growth  and  strength;  and  it 


64  COMPOSITION 

could  have  neither  sympathy  nor  self-control.  Hence,  companionship  is 
necessary  for  several  reasons:  (1)  To  develop  the  social  sympathies  and 
affection -1  of  the  child;  (2)  'I'o  cultivate  properly  its  moral  nature;  (3)  'J'o 
bring  into  play  its  intellectual  activities,  and  to  accustom  it  to  their  ready 
exercise,  liesides,  without  suitable  and  congenial  jjlaymates,  it  would  not 
be  properly  or  sufficiently  stimulated  to  bodily  exercise,  and  its  physical 
growth  and  development  would  be  incomplete. 

Companionship,  therefore,  being  indispensable,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  it  should  be  of  the  right  character.     It  is  particularly  true 

„  of  children,  that  "  evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners," 

. .  .     and  not  only  manners,  but   morals;  indeed,  the  society  of  the 

'    debased  will  inevitably  undermine  the  whole  character,  leaving 

it  but  an  example  of  incorrigible  depravity.     Nevertheless,  a  youth  must 

gradually  be  accustomed  to  the  exercise  of  considerable  freedom  in  selecting 

his  or  her  associates,  since  the  circumstances  of  after  life  will  necessitate 

this  independence  of  choice.     The  great  desiderdtiim  is,  that  the  childs 

mind  should  be  so  impressed  with  right  principles,  that  it  will  avoid  the 

companionship  of  those  wdiose  conduct  and  language  it  perceives  to  be 

vicious.     'I'here  is.  however,  always  need  of  great  vigilance  in  order  to 

prevent  corrupting  companionship,  even  when  the  greatest  care  has  been 

p   ,    .  .     exercised  in  the  previous   moral    training  of  a  youth;  for  the 

stronger  will  must  always  control  the  weaker  will,  when  brought 

■  ( •  '  together,  and  children  learn  much  faster  from  each  other  than 
from  their  elders.  'J'o  influence  a  young  })erson,  so  as  to  form 
his  character  in  a  particular  direction,  or  fully  to  control  his  actions,  it 
is  requisite  to  cultivate  a  certain  degree  of  companionship  with  him. 
Parents  who  pursue  this  course,  —  fathers  making  companions  of  their 
sons,  and  mothers,  of  their  daugliters,  are  the  most  successful  in  establish- 
ing the  character  of  their  children.  To  a  limited  extent,  the  same  principle 
may  be  applied  in  school  education.  The  austere  teacher  who  never  strives 
„  to  cultivate  any  other  relation  between  himself  and  his  pupil 

^.  ^'     than  that  of  authority,  will  never  exert  any  considerable  influence 
on.    /)  o/^  ^^,^^  j^.^  moral  character;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  who  is 
'  e:usy  and  familiar,  who  cultivates  the   friendship,  esteem,  and 
confidence  of  his  pupil,  will  find  the  latter  always  glad  to  be  his  comjianion, 
and  will  be  able  to  control  his  conduct  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent. 

COMPOSITION,  as  the  formal  expression  of  thought,  and  as  a 
branch  of  school  exercise,  has  usually  been  confined  to  that  which  is  writ- 
T)  ij   ■/■       ten;  but  by  some  the  sigrufication  of  the  term  has  been  so  ex- 

■^  ■  tended  as  to  embrace  also  the  oral  use  of  language  in  the  ex- 

pression of  a  logically  connected  .series  of  ideas.  Thus,  it  has  been  said 
that  "oral  composition  may  be  cultivated  from  a  very  early  period,  indeed 
from  the  beginning  of  the  pupils  school  education;  and  whatever  degree 
of  facility  he  attains  in  it  will  secure  hi.s  more  rapid  advancement  when  he 
enters  on  the  study  of  written  composition;"  which  is  undoubtedly  true. 
At  the  same  time,  as  nothing  is  gaineil  by  extending  the  application  of  a 
term  beyond  the  Hunts  of  ordinary  usage,  it  would  seem  best  to  restrict 
the  word  coin  position  to  the  written  expression  of  thought:  more  especially 
as  this  requires  a  somewhat  diverse  training  from  that  which  is  needed  in 
oral  discourse.    Of  course,  the  habit  of  using  language  correctly  in  all  the 


COMrOSITION  65 

oral  school  exercises,  as  ■well  as  in  ordinary  conversation,  is  not  only  useful 
but  essential  as  au  antecedent  preparation  for  written  composition;  and  in 
„       -    view  of  this,  it  is  important  that  pupils  should  be  accustomed,  in 
,  "^     all  their  recitations,  to  be  accurate  in  expression  and  not  only 

^  ^  ■  to  use  the  proper  forms  of  words,  but  to  construct  ccmplete 
sentences,  instead  of  such  fragmentary  phrases  as  are  very  often  made  use 
of  in  answer  to  the  questions  of  the  teacher.  Moreover,  in  all  recitations 
•which  do  not  absolutely  require  a  verbntim  repetition  of  the  language  of 
the  text-book,  the  pupil  should  be  accustomed  to  use  his  own  language  as 
far  as  possible,  thus  drawing  upon  the  resources  of  his  own  vocabulary,  and 
his  constructive  power  in  expression.  Eut  all  this  is  only  auxiliary  to 
■p  .  written  composition,  which  requires  special  and  peculiar  exer- 
cises, beginning  almost  as  soon  as  the  pupil  has  learned  to 
write  simple  words  and  sentences;  indeed,  rudimental  txerciscs  in  ccnipo- 
sition  may  constitute  an  essential  part  of  object  lessons,  the  teacher  writing 
on  the  blackboard  instead  of  requiring  the  pupils  to  write  on  the  slate  or 
on  paper.  For  example,  in  the  description  of  an  object,  the  pupils  observe 
and  state  each  quality  successively,  and  the  teacher  writes  each  separate 
statement  on  the  blackboard,  observing  strictly  the  rules  for  punctuation 
and  the  use  of  capitals;  and  then  the  pupils  are  required  to  put  the  whole 
into  a  connected  statement,  which  the  teacher  also  writes  on  the  black- 
board. Thus,  suppose  the  object  is  a  piece  of  (,lass.  1  be  pupils  say,  and 
the  teacher  writes,  Glass  is  hard.  Glass  is  solid.  Glass  is  Iriitle.  Glass 
is  transparent.  Then  the  whole  is  .formed  into  a  connected  statement;  and 
the  teacher  writes,  Glass  is  hai'd,  solid,  Irittle,  and  trcvspareiU.  Such 
simple  exercises  are  susceptible  of  a  very  great  variety,  and,  consequently, 
may  be  made  to  afford  a  great  deal  of  valuable  training  both  in  thought 
and  language.  Reading  also  may  be  made  available  in  trainirg  pupils  in 
the  ready  and  correct  use  of  language,  by  requiring  them  constantly  to 
reproduce,  in  their  own  modes  of  expression,  the  substance  of  the  lessons 
read;  and,  as  soon  as  they  have  learned  to  write  with  sufEcient  fluency,  to 
set  down  on  paper,  or  on  the  slate,  portions  of  these  statements.  -Akin  to 
this  kind  of  exercise,  is  the  reading  of  simple  narratives  by  the  teacher, 
and  requiring  the  pupils  to  give  the  substance  of  them  in  their  own 
language. 

In   all   these   cases,   the    pupils   are    trained    chiefly   in    the   use   of 
words  and    the    construction  of    sentences;    but    the   teaching  of  ccm- 
„     ,.        position  requires,  (1)  a   cultivation  of  thought:  ard  (2)  a  culti- 
P    vation  of   the   faculty  of    expresRion.      1  bought  implies  ideas 
..  and  their  logical  arrangement  according  to  certain  laws  of  as- 

sociation. The  mind  mu.st  recall  all  that  it  has  learned  upon  the 
subject  under  consideration,  —  ideas,  facts,  propositions,  opinions,  etc., 
and  arrange  them  into  a  symmetrical  whole.  To  do  this  well  requires 
not  only  maturity  of  mental  culture,  but  much  practice  in  the  use 
of  language,  filling  the  memory  not  only  with  a  vocabulary  of  words,  but  a 
large  accumulatiou  of  phrases,  and  other  forms  of  expression,  associated  reg- 
Writina  "'^^^Y  '^^^^  certain  recurrent  ideas.  The  difficulty  experienced 
comaosi'  ^^  pupils  in  writing  compositions  is  proverbial;  and  to  a  consid- 
tions  erable  extent,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  obsolete;  since  modern  methods 
of  instruction  have  gone  far  toward  eradicating  many  of  the 


66  COMPOSITION 

absurd  educational  practices  of  by-gone  times,  one  of  which  was  to  require 
young  pupils  to  write  formal  compositions  upon  difficult  abstract  themes 
without  any.  or  with  very  inadequate,  preliminary  preparation  and  train- 
ing. 'I'he  necessity  of  such  training  is  now  pretty  generally  recognized,  and 
suitable  graded  exercises  are  employed;  such  as  the  following:  (1)  Conver- 
sations upon  familiar  objects,  such  as  usually  engage  the  attention  of 
children;  (2)  Sentence-making,  in  various  forms,  and  affording  practice  in 
the  application  of  grammatical  rules;  (3)  Formal  descriptions  of  olyects; 
(4)  Simple  narratives;  {^)  Didactic  essays,  graduated  from  the  simplest 
composition  upon  such  subjects  as  a  horse,  a  cow,aJtoirer,  (fee,  up  to  those 
upon  complex  abstract  themes;  (6)  Argumentative  compositions,  in  which 
the  principles  and  rules  of  logic  and  rhetoric  may  find  an  application  and 
illustration.  Jiach  of  these  classified  forms  of  exercise  needs  much  con- 
tinuous practice;  and  the  pujiil  should  not  be  required  to  write  mis- 
cellaneous compositions  until  he  has  been  successively  trained  in  those  of 
the  first  four  classes,  and  ha3  acquired  a  fair  degree  of  readiness  at  each 
stage  of  his  progress. 

In  all  the  exercises,  however,  of  whatever  grade  or  kind,  it  is  very 
essential  that  the  pupil  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be  induced  to  make 

^  use  of  his  own  experience  in  selecting  subjects  for  compositions 

'     -^  writing  of  what  he  has  himself  seen  and  heard,  and  using  the 

■„,;,•„  simplest  and  most  direct  language  he  can  command.  Mere  cram- 
matical  exercises  are  of  uttle  use  in  teaching  composition;  per- 
haps, they  are  rather  a  hindrance,  since  the  exclusive  attention  to  the  con- 
struction of  sentences  without  regard  to  their  meaning  or  logical  coherence, 
tends  to  the  formation  of  habits  that  are  directly  opposed  to  success  in  ac- 
tual composition.  The  great  point  is  to  accustom  the  pupils,  by  constant 
daily  practice,  to  the  free  expression  of  their  thoughts  in  v/riting.  Let 
them  have  something  to  say,  and  then  require  them  to  write  it  in  the  most 
natural  way,  employing  their  own  modes  of  thinking  and  of  using  language, 
and  thus,  in  the  course  of  time,  developing  a  style;  since  style  is  only  the 
peculiar  impress  of  a  writer's  individuality  ui)on  his  forms  of  expression. 
Faraphrases  and  translations,  however,  afford  a  very  valuable  kind  of  exer- 
cise in  composition;  but  should  not  be  employed  except  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced stages  of  the  instruction,  since  to  reproduce  exactly  the  thought  of 
a  foreign  writer  requires  a  gre  it  command  of  language. 

In  the  correction  of  compositions,  the  teacher  should  exercise  great 
prudence,  so  as  to  impart  the  kind  and  degree  of  instruction  ada|)ted  to 
Correction  ^^^^  pup''  s  progress;  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  discourage  his 
'efforts  by  too  minute  criticism.  If  a  class  is  under  instruction, 
the  prevailing  errors  of  the  pupils,  as  discerned  on  a  perusal  of  the  compo- 
sitions, will  suggest  certain  topics  on  which  instruction  is  needed;  and  this 
may  then  be  illustrated  by  examples  culled  from  the  compositions  without 
referring  to  them  individually.  Especially  should  the  teacher  avoid  hold- 
ing up  any  of  the  pujjils'  efforts  to  ridicule  or  severe  rebuke,  unless  the  in- 
accuracies are  such  as  result  from  sheer  carelessness.  A  pupils  whole  in- 
tellectual career  may  be  vitiated  by  an  imprudence  of  this  kind;  since,  in 
general,  there  is  nothing  in  respect  to  which  persons,  whether  adults  or 
ciiildren,  are  so  sensitive  as  in  regard  to  their  efforts  in  written  com- 
position. 


CONCENTRIC  CIRCLES  — CONCEPTION  07 

When   the  compositions  have  been   carefully  read,  and  the  errors 

pointed  out  by  suitable  marks,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  transcribe 

..     them,  so  that  they  may  be  presented  for  further  revision.     Ihe. 

.  ansa  ip-  ^^^^jy  q£  grammar  and  composition  should  be  pursued  together 

in  the  early  stages,  and  rhetoric  and  composition  in  the  later. 

CONCENTmC  CIKCLES,  System  of.  Among  the  new  methods 
of  instruction  which  have  recently  been  extensively  employed  in  schools, 
that  of  teaching  on  what  has  been  called  Concentric  Circ'es  deserves  to  be 
specially  mentioned.  According  to  this  method,  a  subject  which  is  to  be 
taught  in  several  grades  or  classes,  is  not  distributed  into  a  number 
of  consecutive  sections  of  which  the  lowest  class  studies  the  first,  the 
following  the  next,  and  so  on,  until  the  last  section  is  reached  by  the  high- 
est class;  but  the  most  elementary  points  —  forming  an  outline  —  are 
selected  for  the  lowest  class;  and  in  the  following  class  or  classes,  this  part 
of  the  work  is  reviewed,  and  the  review  is  combined  with  additional  selec- 
tions still  covering  the  entire  extent  of  the  subject,  but  with  greater 
detail,  until,  in  a  number  of  such  concentric  circles,  the  informa- 
tion of  the  scholars  is  extended  to  the  limit  which  the  course  of  study 
prescribes. 

In  Germany,  this  plan  has  been  quite  extensively  adopted  in  the  teach- 
ing of  history,  geography,  natural  science,  and  language,  as  well  as  in 
arithmethic  (see  Developing  Method).  See  Ycar-Book  of  Educiition 
for  ]  S78. 

CONCEPTION,  or  the  Coneeptive  Faculty,    the  faculty  of  the 

mind  which  retains  past  perceptions,  and  forms  from  them  general  ideas, 

^  „   .  .       or   notions,    sometimes   called  concepts.     In  this  manner,   the 

•^"      "■  individual   impressions  obtained  by  perception   are   associated 

in  the  mind,  according  to  their  resemblances  and  analogies,  and  become 

the    materials   of   thought ;    for  without    general   ideas  thought  is    im- 

Tn    J.   ^-      possible.     Thus,  the   child  perceives  a  horse,  but  the  concept 

Illustration,  i     ■,        .    ,        '  ,  u      f  ii  x-         •         4.     r  ^i    4. 

in  its  mmd  as  the   result   or  the  perception,  is   not  or  that 

particular  horse,  which  it  will  remember  to  have  seen  at  a  particular  time 

and  place,  but  of  the  horse  as  one  of  a  class  of  animals  resembling  the 

one  seen  ;  and  to  each  one  of  this  class  it  is  at  once  prepared  to  apply 

the  name  horse.     As,  if  you  ask  a  child,  How  many  legs  has  a  horse? 

he  answers,/o;«';  because  such  is  his  concept  or  notion  of  a  horse,  formed 

from  all  the  perceptions  which  he  has  had  of  this  animal.      "  Nature," 

says  Isaac  Taylor,  "  for  purposes  which  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  divine, 

has  allowed  an  absolute  predominance  to  the  coneeptive    faculty  during 

the  season  of  infancy,  and  has  granted  it  a  principal  share  in  tJie  mental 

_,  .     economy  during  the  succeeding  years   of  childhood."     Hence, 

oncepwn  ^^  is  with  this  faculty  that  early  education  has  principally  to 

m  en  -  jjp^|_  j^^  ^jijg  pei-iod,  the  mind  is  to  be  stored  with  ideas — 
images,  or  mental  pictures  of  past  perceptions,  wdiich  it  is  to 
employ  as  the  material  for  the  exercise  of  the  other  faculties, — imagination, 
judgment,  reason.  "A  rich  and  ready  conception,"  says  Currie,  "  is  the 
soil  out  of  which  grows  a  sound  judgment.  The  cause  of  error  in  our  judg- 
ments lies  as  frequently  in  the  want  of  materials  on  which  to  base  them  as 
on  the  want  of  power  to  compare  them  when  required."  He  also  judi- 
ciously remarks,  "  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  hasten  on  the  child  to  use  the 


68  CONCEPTION 

forms  of  judgment  before  his  mind  is  stored  with  the  materials  to  which  to 
apply  them,  under  the  impression  that  we  are  teaching  him  to  think."   The 
„.  ., ,         faculty  of  conception  is  most  active  in  relation  to  the  objects  of 
hie  ts        sight,  that  is,  the  perceptions  derived  from  that  sense  give  rise  to 
^      '        the  strongest  or  most  vivid  conceptions ;   hence,   indeed,  the 
word  idea,  meaning    image  or  picture  in  the  mind.     To  those  who  are 
deprived  of  the  sense  of  sight,  the  perceptions  produced  by  the  sense  of 
hearing  stimulate,  perhaps,  with  almost  equal  force  the  conceptive  faculty. 
"The  furniture  of  the  conceptive  faculty,  as  derived  from  the  objects  of 
sight,"  says  Isaac  Taylor,  "  constitutes  the  principal  wealth  of  the  mind,  and 
upon  the  ready  command  of  these  treasures,  with  some  specific  end  in  view, 
fuif,  f-     depends   in  great  measure  its  power."     The  cultivation  of  this 
'  faculty  should  aim,  (1)  To  give  clear,  detinite  ideas  of  objects 

..  and  their  properties  ;  (2)  To  imprint  them  deeply  upon  the 
■^  ■  mind,  so  that  they  may  be  permanently  retained,  and  readily  re- 
called ;  and  (3)  To  associate  them,  as  far  as  possible,  according  to  their 
intrinsic  or  logical  relations.  It  is  a  well-understood  fact  that  the  clearest 
and  deepest  conceptions  are  obtained  by  a  close  and  accurate  observation 
of  the  objects  from  which  they  are  derived.  Clearness  and  strength  of  per- 
ception are  followed  by  the  same  qualities  in  conception.  Hence  the 
value  of  object  teaching,  the  best  results  of  which  are  the  effects  produced 
upon  the  conceptive  faculty.  In  traniing  the  perception,  we  are.  indeed, 
training  the  conception  ;  and  it  is  the  latter  process  that  is  especially  valu- 
able, not  the  former.  This  training  can  only  be  carried  on  by  means  of 
Ta  a  e  ^^^"^S^^S^-  ^'o  idea  can  be  fixed  in  the  mind  to  be  of  any  prac- 
'^  ^  ■  tical  value,  unless  there  is  linked  with  it  its  proper  verbal  desig- 
nation. Words  as  well  as  ideas  are  the  elements  of  thought.  A  large  part 
of  elementary  teaching  consists  in  analyzing  the  parts  and  properties  of 
objects,  and,  after  leading  the  mind  to  form  concepts  of  them  through 
sense-perception,  applying  to  them  the  names  l)y  which  they  are  commonly 
known.  As  examples  of  lessons  of  this  kind,  the  following  are  given  from 
Currie's  Early  and  Infant  School  Edncntion: 

TREP]. 
Place — in  the  gronnd,  in  fields,  gardens,  etc. 

FtiK.M— upright,  bending,  wide-spreading  above,  with  waving  motion,  etc. 
Parts — IJoot,  below  ground,  branching,  etc. 

Trunk:  round,  solid,  pillar-like,  firm,  dark,  rough,  knotty,  etc. 

Leaves:  heart-shaped,  oval,  etc.;  soft,  green,  yellow,  etc. 

Blossom  and  fruit  in  their  seasons. 
Sound  (in  mo/ion;— rustling,  gentle,  violent,  etc. 

GLASS. 

Color— light,  stained,  clear,  transparent,  obscured,  etc.  |    <-.  ,^ 

FoKM  (in  iriucZoTs;— square,  round,  oval,  lozenge-shaped,  etc.  (   "'S'™" 
Thin,  light,  hard,  brittle,  cold,  sharp,  etc.  Touch. 

SF  A 

Ta.ste— salt,  unpleasant,  cold,  etc.  '  Taste, 

SiZK— large,  bioid,  deep,  etc.  ) 

CoLOK— green,  blue,  clear,  sandy,  etc.  >•  Sight. 

FoKM— Surface:  plain.  w;ivy,  billowy,  foaming,  etc.  ) 

Sound  (in  7)u><io;;j— dashing,  murmuring,  gentle,  violent,  etc.         JTeming. 
cool,  refreshing,  cold,  etc.  Touch. 

Such  lessons  admit  of  an  endless  variety,  and  may  be  either  entirely 
objective;  that  is,  given  with  the  objects  placed  before  the  pupib,  or  purely 


COKCKRT  TEACHING  69 

conceptive:  such  as  those  above  on  the  tree  and  sen.  Both  kinds,  however, 
have  the  same  primary  object  in  view,  —  to  train  the  conceptive  facuhy  in 
connection  with  expression.  Observation  is  also  greatly  stimulated  and 
guided  by  such  lessons.  Thus,  to  take  so  familiar  an  object  as  the  sky,  of 
which  every  child  must  necessarily  have  a  multitude  of  conceptions, 
although  perhaps  indefinite  and  almost  useless,  because  not  associated  with 
any  names.  How  much  would  his  real  available  knowledge  be  increased 
by  an  exercise  enabling  him  to  enumerate  the  various  appearances  of  the 
sky  by  proper  designations.  Thus:  —  The  Sky  may  be  serene,  stoi'my, 
clear,  overcast,  misty,  hazy,  foggy,  gloomy,  lou-ering,  bright,  resplendent, 
brillinid,  deep,  dull,  brazen,  red,  gray,  azure,  starry,  dark,  lurid,  etc.,  etc. 
In  a  similar  manner,  the  sensible  properties  of  a  great  variety  of  familiar 
objects  may  be  recalled  and  named,  and  in  this  way  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  to  minute  characteristics  may  be  cultivated,  and  their  command  of 
language  much  increased. 

The  conceptions  of  the  mind  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  feelings.  An 
indifferent,  apathetic  mental  mood  will  effectually  preclude  the  formation 

J  ^  of  any  deep  or  durable  impressions;  on  the  contrary,  the  con- 

ofihe     *^^ptio"s  of  objects  and  scenes  with  which  the  mind  has  been 

Feelinqs  bi'f  "ght  into  contact  under  circumstances  causing  deep  emotion, 
either  of  pleasure  or  pain,  are  ineffaceable.  "  The  cherished 
and  imperishable  recollections  of  childhood,  often  as  bright  and  clear  at 
eighty  as  they  were  at  twenty,  are  those  treasures  of  the  conceptive  faculty 
which  have  been  consigned  to  its  keeping  tinder  the  influence  of  vivid 
pleasurable  emotions."  There  is  no  principle  which  the  teacher  should 
more  earnestly  consider  than  this,  prompting-  as  it  does  to  the  effort  to 
associate  with  the  scenes  of  the  child's  school  life  every  jwssible  object 
which  may  excite  its  interest,  awaken  its  delight,  and  lend  a  charm  to  its 
intellectual  acquirements.  —  See  Isaac  Taylok,  Home  Education;  Cureie, 
Earb/  and  Infant  School  Education. 

CONCERT  TEACHING,  a  mode  of  instruction  in  which  the  pupils 

memorize  what  is  to  be  learned,  by  simultaneous  repetition.     It  is  thus 

a  kind  of  rote-teaching,  and   is  subject  to   all   the  disadvantages  and 

y^,    .  ..  .    liable  to  all  the  objections  incident  to  that  system.     In  large 

■  schools,  in  which  very  many  pupils  are  taught  together  in  a  single 

class,  this  has  been  a  common  and  favorite  practice  with  teachers;  because 

it  has  been  found  a  ready  way  to  fix  in  the  memory  of  children  the 

rudimentary  principles  of  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  etc.,  and  to  impart 

^        to  the  pupils  the  ability  to  repeat,  in  answer  to  set  questions, 

^  "      what  has  been  thus  mechanically  learned.  The  arbitrary  associa- 

^    '      tions  established  in  this  way  are  very  strong  and  durable;  and, 

as  some  things  are  to  be  taught  arbitrarily,  and  others  to  be  associated  in 

the  mind  so  that  they  may  be  arbitrarily  suggested,  that  is,  recalled  without 

any  effort  of  reasoning  or  other  mental  process,  the  method  of  concert 

repetition,  has  a  place  in  teaching  that  is  useful  and   important.     For 

example,  the  multiplication  table  would  be    of  little  value  if  it  were  so 

learned,  that  the  pupil  would  require  to  reason  out,  or  reckon  up,  the 

result  of  each  required  combination;  the  associations  must  be  of  such  a 

character,  that  thought  is  unnecessary  to  recall  them,  the  process  of  simple 

suggestion  being  alone  required.     Hence,  in  memorizing  such  things  as 


70  CONCERT  TEACIIIXG 

arithmetical  tables,  graminatical  declensions,  conjugations,  etc.,  concert 
teaching  is  valuable,  on  the  principles,  (I)  that  all  repetition  is  valuable  in 
order  to  impress  the  mind;  and  (2)  that,  the  sense  of  hearing  being  strongly 
appealed  to,  the  mental  impressions  and  their  associations  are  more  durable, 
and  more  easily  recalled.  Besides,  by  such  exercises,  the  young  pupils  are 
constantly  employed;  their  minds  are  kei)t  steadily  upon  their  school  work, 
and  a  strong  social  or  collective  sympathy  is  established,  which  would  not 
be  possible  by  tlie  exclusive  em])loyment  of  individual  exercises.  In  this 
connection,  Currie  says,  "  By  this  oft  repeated  simultaneousness  of  thought, 
action,  and  emotion,  the  mass  becomes  welded  together,  takes  on  one  stamp, 
breathes  one  spirit.  . .  .  Such  is  the  foundation  of  that  simultaneous  action 
with  which,  un  ler  the  name  of  collective  leas^ons  or  r/dller)/  lessons,  we  are 
so  familiar  in  the  infant  school."  So  strongly  is  this  writer  impressed  with 
its  usefulness,  that  he  styles  it  "  the  very  essence  of  the  infant-school  system, 
springing  immediately  from  the  root  of  it,  and  embodying  a  first  principle 
of  its  existence." 

The  exercise  of  intelligence  is,  however,  to  be  considered  the  chief 
instrument  of  education ;  and  this  is  so  much  an  individual  matter,  that 
J.  .  the  limits  withm  which  concert  or  simultaneous  repetition  is 
of  7  sp  proper,  are  quite  narrow;  and  the  tendency  with  most  teachers 
'  is  to  transcend  them.  Consequently,  the  intelligence  of  many 
pupils,  instead  of  being  properly  adilressed  and  exercised,  is  kept  in  a  kind 
of  stagnant  condition,  and  is  thus  impaired  rather  than  benefited.  The 
teacher,  in  giving  simultaneous  instruction,  must  endeavor  to  prevent  this. 
The  pupils  will  have  dilTereiit  tem]ieraments  and  different  degrees  of  mental 
power;  and,  consequently,  cannot  all  perform  the  same  work.  The  questions, 
when  addressed  to  the  whole  class,  will  not  be  ailapted  to  all  the  pupils; 
and  if  the  teacher  should  depend  upon  a  mere  simultaneous  response, 
only  a  part  of  the  class  would  be  benefited  by  the  teaching.  A  show  of 
hands  is  a  ready  and  useful  tentative  means  of  ascertaining  the  condition 
of  the  class  in  this  respect;  and  thus  the  advantages  of  the  sinmltaneous 
and  individual  plan  of  teaching  may  be  combined,  the  teacher  selecting 
from  all  who  raise  their  hands  those  who  are  to  answer,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  observing  carefully  who  do  not  raise  their  hands.  Then, 
■when  the  teacher  wishes  a  certain  answer  to  be  repeated  for  the  pur- 
pose of  impressing  it  upon  the  pupils'  minds,  the  class  may  be  required 
to  repeat  it  a.s  often  as  may  be  necessary  in  concert.  Tact  and  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  will  make  this  method  of  elementary  instructiou 
very  effective. 

In  the  simidtancous  responses,  the  tones  of  the  voice  should  be  as  natural 
as  possible.  ^Vithout  great  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  concert  exercises 
rp  ,     are  very  apt  to  degenerate  into  a  sing-song  monotonous  drawl, 

.  ^■.•{  which  undermines  or  prevents  all  proper  ha1)its  of  reading  and 
speaking.  The  ])upils,  too,  arc  very  apt  to  pitcli  their  voices  too 
high,  or  to  u.se  a  kind  of  shouting  tone,  which  no  intelligent  teacher  would, 
for  a  moment,  permit.  Under  the  limitations  referred  to,  and  with  all 
proper  efforts  to  guard  .against  the  abuses  to  which  this  system  of  teaching 
is  peculiarly  liable,  it  is  of  great  value;  but  should  never  be  employed, 
except  when  the  common  nature  and  common  intelligence  of  the  children 
are  to  be  brought  into  play. 


CONSCIENCE  n 

CONSCIENCE,   Culture  of.     The  feeling  of  moral  obligation,  the 
conviction  that  certain  actions  are  right  and  others  wrong,  the  sense  of 
duty,  the  moral  principle,  or  by  whatever  other  phrase  of  similar 
Definition,  gjgniflcation  we  may  define  conscience,  is  the  most  important 
object  of  culture  in  every  department  and  stage  of  moral  education.     '1  he 
strencrth  of  this  principle,  as  an  active  element  of  character,  differs  greatly 
in  different  individuals,  whether  children  or  adults.     As  a  gen- 
Begree  of  ^^^^  ^^^^^  however,  children  are  influenced  but  very  slightly  by  a 
actitihj.     g^^gg  ^^  j,jgj^j.  ^j.  ^^yxj]  they  are  acted  upon  by  a  different  class 
of  motives.     'J  he  desire  of  sensuous  enjoyment,  the  love  of  approbation, 
emulation,  self-will,  the  hope  of  reward,  and  the  fear  of  punishrnent,  are 
the  usual  means  by  which  youthful  minds  are  swayed,  and  their  actions 
controlled.    The  appetites  are  strong;  the  moral  sentiments,  weak.   Hence, 
p.      ,   T,    to  address  the  conscience  of  a  child  as  a  ruling  principle  would 
Eowfobe  ^)e  a  great  error;  perhaps,  a  disaster.     Still,  children  should  be 
developed.  ^^,q^^q^  ^^  possessing  at  least  the  germ  of  conscience;  and  they 
should  early  be  habituated  to   scan   their  own  conduct  as  well  as  that 
of  others,  and  apply  to  it  a  certain  standard  of  moral  rectitude.     ITow- 
ever  imperfect  this  standard  in  a  child "s  mind  may  be,  much  will  be  gained 
•when  we  have  induced  him  to  ask,  in  regard  to  any  of  his  actions,  "Is  it 
right  ?"     The  enlightenment  of  conscience  is  much  easier  than  its  develop- 
ment; to  one  who  is  deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  duty,  a  knowledge 
of  specific  right  and  wrong  will  be  very  readily  acquired.     It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that,  while  the  child  is  really  restrained  by  the  lower  mo- 
tives of  conduct,  such  as  those  above  enumerated,  the  conscience  is  to  be 
steadily  but  carefully  addressed.     Thus,  if  a  pupil,  whose  love  of  approba- 
tion is  strong,  has  learned  a  difficult  lesson  simply  to  please  his  teacher,  it 
is  right  to  accord  him  all  the  praise  which  he  craves  as  the  reward  of  his 
conduct;  but  let  not  the  teacher  fail  to  impress  upon  his  mind,  at  the  same 
time,  that  this  praise  is  given  because  the  action  performed  is  good  —  is 
right;  so  that  his  mind  may  be  drawn  from  his  overweening  desire  for  the 
approbation  of  others,  and  gradually  led  to  appreciate  more  highly  the  ap- 
probation of  his  own  conscience;  and  so  in  respect  to  all  the  lower  incen- 
tives.    If  the  child  is  punished  for  a  fault  by  an  angry  teacher  or  parent, 
he  will  rather  dread  the  anger  than  be  impressed  with  the  wrongfulness  of 
his  conduct;  and,  if  sly  and  deceitful,  the  only  result  of  the  punishment 
■will  be  to  render  him  more  careful  to  conceal  than  to  avoid  similar  wrong- 
doing in  the  future.     Hence,  the  interposition  of  the  teacher "s  personality 
in  connection  with  either  reward  or  punishment  is  an  obstacle  to  the  moral 
improvement  of  the  pupil;  because  it  diverts  his  attention  from  the  charac- 
ter of  his  conduct,  as  good  or  bad  in  itself,  to  an  exclusive  consideration  of 
its  effects  upon  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  as  producing  praise  or  censure. 
Some  thoughtless  teachers  punish  their  pupils  for  not  telling  of  each 
other's  offenses;  when  they  should  be  glad  to  perceive  an  exhibition  of  such 
a  sense  of  honor,  and  should  rather  encourage  and  commend  it.    Of  course, 
if  a  pupil  who  is  strenuous  in  his  refusal  to  act  the  part  of  a  tale-bearer, 
as  being  mean  and   wrong,  could  be  convinced  that  his  duty  demanded 
that  he  should  inake  known  the  wrong-doer,  he  would  at  once  yield;  but, 
after  a  simple  statement  of  the  case,  he  should  be  permitted  to  exercise  his 
conscience,  without  any  violence  or  threats  being  brought  against  it.    A 


•72  CONVERSATIONAL  METHOD 

high  standard  of  moral  excellence  in  a  child  is  just  as  striking  an  in- 
staace  of  precocity,  as  great  intellectual  power  and  attainments;  and  is, 
„  .  perhaps,  as  much  to  be  discouraged.  "Be  content,"  says  Herbert 
r  CO  I  <j.  ^.^pj^j^^j^jj,^  '-with  moderate  measures  and  moderate  results.  Con- 
stantly boar  in  mind  the  fact  tliat  a  higher  morality,  like  a  higher  intelli- 
gence, must  be  reached  by  a  slow  growth;  and  you  will  then  have  more 
patiencj  with  those  imperfections  of  nature  which  your  child  hourly 
displays." 

The  conscience  is  not  to  be  cultivated  by  simply  giving  moral  precepts. 
"Moral  education,"  says  Dymond,  "should  be  directed,  not  so  much  to  in- 
_  ,  -  forming  the  young  what  they  ought  to  do,  as  to  inducing  those 
.  moral  dispositions  and  principles  which  will  make  them  ad- 
nwra  j^^^^  ^^  what  they  know  to  be  right."  The  highest  success  in 
■*^'  '     this  is  achieved   when  the  pupil  is  seen  to  be  willing  to  make 

self  sacrifice,  to  practice  self-denial,  in  order  to  do  what  he  feels  to  be 
right.  'I'liis  point  of  moral  excellence  having  been  reache<l,  the  in- 
dividual may,  witii  entire  safety,  be  allowed  to  control  his  own  actions, 
•with  the  assurance  that  he  will  not,  in  any  circumstance  of  life,  go  far 
astray. 

The  bas's  of  moral  rectitude  has  not  here  been  considered;  nor  is  it 
necessary  to  plunge  into  any  speculations  as  to  what  constitutes  that  dis- 
„  .  ,  criminative  power  between  right  and  wrong  which  is  a  part  of 
"•'  the  original  constitution  of  the  Imman  mind.  It  may  undoubtedly 
^'  be  strengthened  by  religious  training  of  a  proper  character; 
and  hence,  such  training  constitutes  a  very  important  agency  in  the  culture 
of  the  conscience.  "Parents,"  says  Hartley,  "should  labor,  from  the  earliest 
dawnings  of  understanding  and  desire,  to  check  the  growing  obstinacy  of 
the  will,  curb  all  sallies  of  passion,  impress  the  deepest,  most  amiable,  rev- 
erential, and  awful  sentiments  of  Cod,  a  future  state,  and  all  sacred 
things."     (See  Morai,  I'Iducatiom,  and  Religious  Education.) 

CON'VERSATIONAL  METHOD.  This  refers  to  the  mode  of 
giving  instruction,  in  which  the  lessons,  instead  of  being  formal  recitations, 
exercises,  explanations,  or  lectures,  consist  of  a  familiar  discourse  by  the 
teacher,  interspersed  with  questions  or  remarks  by  the  pupils;  that  is  to 
say,  in  which  the  lessons  partake  of  the  character  of  conversations,  both  as 
to  the  manner  of  presenting  the  subject  and  the  style  of  language  employed. 
This  mode  of  teaching  is  especially  adapted  to  young  children,  because  it 
affords  the  teacher  a  constant  opportunity  to  appeal  to  their  intelligence 
and  experience,  and  to  employ  the  simplest  colloquial  expressions.  Be- 
sides, the  utmost  freedom  being  given  to  the  pupils,  they  are  enabled 
to  show  by  their  questions  and  remarks  to  what  extent  and  in  what 
respect  they  need  special  instruction  and  information.  In  order  to  arouse 
and  sustain  the  ])upils'  interest,  their  attention  is  called  to  such  facts 
in  connection  with  the  subject  as,  although  quite  obvious  when  shown 
or  explained,  are  usually  overlooked  by  children,  who  are  generally  but 
superficial  observers  before  being  trained  to  close  attention  and  careful 
investigation.  In  object  teaching,  the  lessons  should  always  be  conver- 
sational, the  teacher  saying  only  enough  to  lead  the  pupils  to  observe, 
and  to  talk  freely  nhiut   what  they  notice. 

CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT.     See  Punishment. 


COtJESE  OF  INSTRUCTION  73 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION,  or  Course  of  Study,  is  a  series  of 

subjects  of  instruction  or  study,  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  should 

be  pursued,  and  grouped  or  divided,  into  grades,  each  to  be 

Dejimtioii  completed  in  a  certain  time.     Such  an  arrangement  of  studies 

and  aes-  j^  sometimes  called  a.  graded  course,  and,  especially  in  superior 

^  'instruction,  a   curricidnm.     When  these  various  subjects  are 

arranged  in  the  form  of  a  daily  order  of  exercises,  showing  the  time,  or  the 

number  of  lessons,  to  be  given  to  each  subject,  it  constitutes  the  school 

programme. 

in  order  that  the  objects  of  intellectual  education  may  be  fully  attained, 
it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  course  of  instruction  should  be 
„      .       iudicious  in  respect  to  several  points  :  (1)  The  selection  ot  sub- 
.      jects ;   (2)  Their  order  or  arrangement ;  (3)  The  number  pre- 
scribed for  simultaneous  study  ;   (4)  The  division  of  the  course 
into  grades,  with  a  definite  time  assigned  for  the  completion  of  each     '1  he 
first  of  these  considerations  is  of  paramount  importance;  since  the  subjects 
of  study  constitute  not  only  the  basis  of  intellectual  culture,  but  the  source 
.  of  necessary  information.     Two  points,  consequently,  are  to  be 

f^''  v'  considered  in  this  selection:  (1)  The  value  of  the  subjects  as 
be  con p  -jj-igjjjjg  ^,f  culture;  (2)  Iheir  importance  as  sources  of  infor- 
mation. In  the  early  stages  of  education,  the  first  of  these  con- 
siderations should,  without  doubt,  have  the  preference;  but.  as  educaiiou 
advances,  the  second  claims  an  increasing  degree  of  attention,  until  in  the 
sphere  of  technical  and  professional  education,  it  becomes  almost  the  ex- 
clusive aim.  We  cannot,  therefore,  decide  upon  a  course  of  instruction, 
without  considering  the  nature  of  the  mind  to  be  educated  as  well  as  the 
objects  for  which  it  is  to  be  educated.  In  elementary  or  primary  edu^aiion, 
^ ,  .  the  necessary  subjects  of  instruction  may  be  grouped  into  the 
,  , "V^  ,^  following  :  (1)  Xr/«(7»a9e,  incltiding  reading  ancl  elocution,  spell- 
'  ing,  the  analysis  and  definition  of  words,  grammar,  and  con  po- 
sition ;  (2)  Rudimentary  Mathemcdics,  including  arithmetic,  mental  and 
written,  algebra,  and  geometry ;  (3)  ElemeuUtri/  Science,  or  a  knowledge 
of  things,  graded  from  the  simple  perceptive  facts  of  object  instruction  up 
to  the  rudiments  of  geography,  natural  history,  physiology,  physics,  astron- 
omy, etc.;  (4)  History;  (Ji)  Grnpliics, — writing,  drawing,  etc.;  (G)  Ath- 
letics,—  gymnastics  or  calisthenics.  To  these  may  be  added  music,  vofyi 
or  instrumental,  which  constitutes  a  part  of  esthetics.  In  addition  to  these 
branches  of  study,  in  some  cases,  the  rudiments  of  a  foreign  language  are 
also  taught.  The  distinction  between  primary  and  secondary  instruu  ion 
not  being  definitely  fixed  as  to  sttbjects,  some  of  those  mentioned  above 
may  be  deemed  exclusively  appropriate  to  the  higher  grade.  For  proper 
mental  discipline,  there  must,  however,  be  instruction  in  things  as  well  as 
words,  —  the  perceptive  and  conceptive  faculties  must  be  trained  as  well  as 
the  expressive  faculties,  so  that  the  mind  may  be  stored  with  ideas  and  their 
p,.  representatives  in  language.     A  proper  discrimination  between 

,     ^^    primary  and  secondary  instruction   depends  upon  (1)  the  kind 
n   secon-  ^^    instruction,   and    (2)   the  subjects  of   instruction.     Science 
,      ..   '    taught  in  the  high  school  is  a  very  different  thing  from  science 
in  the  primary  school ;  in  the  one  case  we   address  to  a  mtich 
greater  extent  the  higher  faculties,  —  abstraction,  generalization,  reasoning, 


74  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 

etc.;  in  the  other,  chiefly  the  perceptive  and  conceptivo  faculties.  Tho 
subjects  of  elementary  instruction  have  been  classified  by  an  eminent 
educator  as  follows  :  "(1)  Heading  and  Writing — the  mastery  of  letters ; 
(2)  Arithmetic — the  mastery  of  numbers;  (3)  Geography — the  mastery 
over  place  ;  (4)  Grammar — the  mastery  over  the  word ;  (5)  History — 
the  mastery  over  time." 

In  schools  of  secondary  instruction  (high  schools,  academies,  etc.),  the 
course  includes  also  language — the  vernacular,  and  one  or  more  modern 
„.  .  languages,  and  also  the  rudiments  of  Latin  and  (jlreek,  particularly 

10 '■er  £^  preparatory  schools  ;  mathematics,  including  algebra,  geom- 
cowse.  etry,  trigonometry,  mensuration,  etc.;  science  (taught  as  sucli), 
including  physics  and  chemistry,  astronomy  (descriptive,  at  least),  physiol- 
ogy, etc.;  to  which  are  u.sually  added  English  literature,  rhetoric,  the 
elements  of  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  etc.  What  properly  belongs  to 
a  high  school  or  academic  course  is,  however,  far  from  being  settled ;  in- 
deed, to  fix  the  line  of  demarcation  between  primary  and  secondary  in- 
struction has  scarcely  been  attempted  ;  hence,  what  should  constitute  tho 
course  of  study  in  schools  of  this  grade  is  an  open  question,  which  is  usually 
determined  by  the  circumstances  and  special  aim  of  the  school.  Thus,  the 
course  for  a  business  college,  for  example,  is  very  different  from  that  of  a 
collegiate  or  preparatory  school.  The  theory  of  the  connuon-school  system 
in  the  United  States  requires  that  the  \)\\\n\  should  enter  the  high  school 
with  a  good  knowledge  of  the  studies  already  mentioned  ; — at  least,  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  English  grammar,  and  the  history  of 
the  United  States ;  but  it  is  a  great  error  to  suppose  that  these  subjects 
can  be  fully  mastered  by  an  immature  mind.  "  Until  all  educators,"  says 
a  thoughtful  teacher,  "shall  agree  as  to  the  precise  culture  power  of  each 
study,  as  avcU  as  to  the  exact  value  of  its  imparted  information,  and  shall 
determine,  to  tho  satisfaction  of  all,  what  particular  faculties  each  calls  into 
activity,  and  just  how  the  calling  into  action  of  these  faculties  educates  a 
man,  it  Avill  be  impossible  to  establish  a  course  of  study  which  all  shall 
acknowledge  as  absolutely  the  best." 

The  division  of  the  course  of  instruction  into  grades  is  sometimes 

made  by  topics,  and  sometimes  by  text-hooks;  and  each  method  has  its 

.     ,    advocates.     The  former,  it  is  claimed,  gives  more  freedom  to 

Basis  of  ^-^^  teacher  —  more  scope  for  the  exercise  of  intelligent  discrim- 
graaua  ion.  jj^j^|.Jq^  ^^y^d  original  treatment;  the  instruction  proceeds  to 
a  greater  extent  from  the  living  teacher,  since  tliere  is  less  inducement  to 
confine  it  to  a  mere  hearing  of  recitations,  'i'lie  subject  is  the  paramount 
consideration;  the  text-book,  the  secondary.  The  teacher,  and  the  pupil  also 
as  far  as  po.ssible,  is  required  to  consult  various  books,  to  compare  their 
statements,  to  correct  their  errors;  and  thus,  while  perhaps  a  particular 
text-book  is  used  as  a  basis  for  the  instruction,  a  more  general  knowledge 
of  the  subject  is  imparted  tlian  is  contained  in  any  single  work.  Thus,  if 
the  study  is  the  history  of  the  United  States,  to  one  grade  is  assigned  the 
Colonial  History;  to  another,  the  period  of  the  RevobUion  and  the 
Establishment  of  tho  Federal  Govertiment,  etc.;  wliile,  if  the  division  were 
by  book,  it  would  be  necessary  that  all  the  schools  should  use  the  same, 
and  a  certain  number  of  pages  would  be  assigned  to  each  grade.  For 
absolute  uniformity,  of  course,  the  second  plan  is  preferable;  but  some 


CRAMMIXG  75 

educators  claim  that  uniformity  may   be  carried  too  far,  constituting  a 
Procrustean  standard,  and  tending  to  deprive  the  instruction  of  one  of 
rp    .    ,       its    most    essential    qualities,  — its    adaptability    to   different 
,  minds.  Evidently  the  topical  system  makes  more  demands  upon 

^  '  the  teacher;  and  this,  it  is  claimed,  constitutes  its  great 
advantage,  since  it  necessitates  better  information,  higher  culture,  and 
more  real  teaching  ability.  What  kind  of  development,  it  is  asked,  can 
result  from  the  mere  hearing  of  recitations  ?  And  what  kind  of  influence 
can  be  exerted  by  a  teacher  that  never  goes  beyond  the  narrow  scope  of 
the  school  text-book  ?  Not  that  the  legitimate  use  of  text-books  is  to  be 
discouraged,  but  only  a  servile  dependence  upon  them;  and  it  is  claimed 
that  the  prescribing  of  topics  rather  than  books,  tends  to  prevent  this. 
Says  D.  P.  Page,  in  Tlieory  and  Practice  of  Teaching^  "A  teacher  who 
is  perfectly  familiar  with  what  is  taught,  has  ten  times  the  vivacity  of  one 
who  is  obliged  to  follow  the  very  letter  of  the  book."  See  Thojias  Hill, 
The  True  Order  of  Studies  (X.  Y.,  1876). 

CRAMMING,  a  term  used  in  regard  to  education,  to  denote  the 
fault  of  filling  the  mind  with  facts,  without  allowing  it  sufficient  time  to 
arrange  and  generalize  them,  to  compare  tlrem  with  its  previous  ac- 
quisitions, or  to  determine  their  real  significance,  as  related  to  general 
principles.  It  is  thus  a  kind  of  mental  stuffing,  and,  consequently,  is 
opposed  to  the  true  object  of  education,  which,  as  the  word  etymological ly 
considered  implies,  is  not  to  pour  something  into  the  mind,  but  to  bring 
out,  by  appropriate  exercise,  its  latent  faculties.  In  college  phrase,  students 
are  said  to  cram  for  an  examination,  when  they  make  preparation  with 
undue  haste,  impressing  upon  their  memory  by  repetition  a  mass  of  things 
about  which  they  expect  to  be  questioned,  but  which,  when  the  examina- 
tion is  over,  they  immediately  forget.  Such  a  process  is  exceedingly 
injurious  to  the  mind,  since  it  is  a  misdirection  of  its  powers,  wasting 
them  at  a  time  when  they  should  be  all  steadily  employed  in  the  formation 
of  those  habits  of  acquisition  and  thought,  which  constitute  the  basis  of  a 
sound  intellectual  character. 

In  elementary  education,  cramming  is,  therefore,  especially  pernicious; 
and  it  is  at  this  stage,  that  it  is  the  most  likely  to  occur.  It  may  assume 
various  forms,  but  chiefly  the  following:  (1)  Crowding  the  memory  with 
verbal  formuke,  • — ■  definitions,  rules,  statements  of  facts,  names  in 
geography,  dates  in  history,  etc. ;  (2)  Overtasking  the  powers  of  the  mind 
with  a  multiplicity  of  studies,  or  with  such  as  are  not  adapted  to  its 
immature  condition,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  comprehended;  (3)  Undue 
haste  in  instruction,  so  that  the  pupils  are  compelled  to  commit  to  memory 
what  they  have  had  no  time  properly  to  digest  in  their  minds.  Cramming 
may  be  the  result  either  of  the  ignorance  of  the  teacher,  or  of  circumstances 
which  compel  him  to  violate  the  correct  principles  of  education  for  some 
special  end,  as  the  preparation  of  pupils  for  a  public  exhibition  in  which 
they  may  make  an  imposing  display  of  their  superficial  acquirements.  Such 
a  sad  perversion  of  the  teacher "s  work  as  this  implies  is  of  too  frecpient 
occurrence;  for  parents  and  patrons  are  too  fond  of  witnessing  such  displays, 
and  there  are  teachers  whose  eagerness  for  praise  or  patronage  is  sufficient 
to  overcome  their  sense  of  the  true  object  of  their  vocation. —  See  Blackie, 
071  Self-Cidture  (Edinburgh,  1875). 


7C  CRECHE  —  CULTURE 

CRECHE,  a  french  word  signifying  a  crih  or  manger,  but  used  in 
France,  Uelirium,  and  some  other  countries  in  Europe  to  designate  a  kind 
of  infant  asylum. 

CRUELTY  (to  Animals)  is  often  a  prevailing  trait  in  the  characters 
of  cliililren  wlio  have  not  been  specially  trained  to  habitsof  kind,  consid- 
erate, and  humane  feeling  and  conduct.  The  activity  of  a  child's  nature, 
its  love  of  sport,  and  its  undeveloped  sympathies  predispose  it  to  acts  oit 
inconsiderate  cruelty.  The  need  of  educating  the  sympathetic  affections 
in  order  to  counteract  this  tendency  in  youthful  minds  has  been  very 
generally  recognized  by  educators.  Habitual  training,  not  mere  precepts, 
can  alone  effect  this.  Locke  is  very  earnest  on  this  point.  "Children," 
says  he,  "should  be  accustomed  from  their  cradles  to  be  tender  to  all 
sensible  creatures."     See  Cydopiedia  of  Education. 

CULTURE,  a  term  used  to  denote  the  improvement  of  the  human 
character  by  means  of  discipline,  training,  or  self-exertion.  It  is  used  in 
J)  u  f  both  an  active  and  a  passive  sense  ;  in  the  former,  implying  the 
use  of  all  necessary  means  and  agencies  to  cultivate  the  human 
faculties,  and  in  the  latter,  the  result  of  their  operation.  Culture  com- 
prehends both  development  and  refinement ;  that  is,  not  simply  bringing 
into  active  exercise  the  latent  powers  of  the  mind  or  body,  but  adding 
thereto  a  nice  and  careful  discrimination  as  to  their  projier  or  improper  ex- 
ercise, with  a  due  regard  to  the  circumstances  which  require  their  employ- 
ment. Thus  a  man  of  culture  not  only  is  able  to  express  his  thoughts  in 
suitable  and  impressive  language,  but  knows  how  to  adapt  his  language  to 
the  persons,  the  place,  and  the  occasions  which  call  for  this  expression  ;  nor 
does  he  give  utterance  to  his  tliougbts  except  when  it  is  projicr  to  do  so. 
Hence,  cvilture,  in  its  mature  stage,  not  only  implies  power,  but  restraint, 
both  belonging  to  the  inner  nature  of  the  individual.  There  are  as  many 
^.„  ,  .  kinds  of  culture  as  there  are  departments  of  human  nature,  or 
rf  ,  '  special  faculties,  to  be  cultivated  and  improved.  Thus,  culture 
may  be  physical,  intellectual,  moral,  spiritual,  and  esthetic,  ac- 
cording as  its  scope  is  the  improvement  of  the  powers  and  susceptibilities 
of  the  body,  the  intellect,  the  moral  sentiments,  the  soul,  or  the  taste. 
(General  culture  implies  that  everything  constituting  the  character  of  the 
individual  has  been  brought  to  as  high  a  degree  of  improvement  as  is  pos- 
sible. Special  culture  has  reference  to  a  particular  department  of  human 
nature,  or  to  the  development  of  power  in  a  certain  dire(^tion.  Thus,  the 
culture  of  the  poet,  the  painter,  the  orator,  the  teacher,  the  lawyer,  or  the 
clergyman  is  special,  developing  faculties  needed  in  the  particular  vocation 
of  each.  Special  culture,  however,  does  not  exclude  general  culture  ;  for 
no  man  need  be  merely  a  practitioner,  or  worker  in  any  narrow  sphere  of 
effort.  The  object  of  higher  education  is  to  give  this  general  culture  as  a 
basis  for  that  which  is  necessarily  special,  or  technical. 

The   real  instrumentality,  —  in  a  certain  sense  the  only  one,  by  which 
culture  can  be  effected,  is  self-exeition.     None  of  the  faculties,  whether  of 
..       _      the  spirit,  mind,  or  body,  can  be  cultivated  except  by  exercise. 
..  'J'hus  a  person  can  never  learn  to  compo.sc  by  studying  grammar 

and  rhetoric,  nor  to  think  and  reason  by  committing  to  mem- 
ory the  rules  of  logic.  If  he  would  learn  to  write,  or  to  think  and  reason, 
he  must  write  and  think  and  reason,  on  the  same  principle  and  in  the  same 


CURRICULUM  —  DACTYLOLOGY  77 

way  as  a  person  learns  to  swim,  or  a  child  to  walk.  This  exercise  is  the 
individual's  own  work  ;  but  the  exercise  may  be  unsuitable  and  injurious, 
and,  therefore,  needs,  at  first,  the  careful  guidance  of  experience.  Hence, 
the  need  of  an  educator,  until  the  individual  has  acquired  sufficient  knowl- 
edge and  experience  to  direct  the  exercise  himself.  This  shows  the  relation 
of  education  and  culture,  the  one  being  the  handmaid  of  the 

Instru-  Q^j^gj._  ryY^Q  instruments  of  culture  vary  with  its  special  scope. 
ITtf  7/  .  For  those  of  physical  culture,  we  must  learn  what  a  knowledge  of 
'  ^'  physiology  and  experience  in  gymnastics  dictate  ;  those  of  intel- 
lectual culture  can  be  judiciously  selected  only  by  studying  the  laws  which 
regulate  the  operations  of  the  mind.  But  we  are  particularly  to  be  on  our 
guard  in  supposing  that  intellectual  culture  can  spring  from  the  mere 
study  of  other  persons'  ideas.  True  culture  of  this  kind  can  alone  come 
from  (1)  a  patient,  laborious,  and  dihgent  acquisition  of  ideas  of  our  own, 
by  observation  and  reflection  ;  and  (2)  the  study  of  the  experience  of  other 
minds,  and  its  verification,  as  far  as  possible,  by  that  of  our  own.  "  The 
original  and  proper  sources  of  knowledge,"  says  Professor  Blackie,  "  are  not 
books,  but  life,  experience,  personal  thinking,  feeling,  and  acting."  And 
again,  "  All  knowledge  which  comes  from  books  comes  indirectly,  by  re- 
flection, and  by  echo ;  true  knowledge  grows  from  a  living  root  in  the 
thinking  soul ;  and  whatever  it  may  appropriate  from  without,  it  takes  by 
hving  assimilation  into  a  living  organism,  not  by  mere  borrowing."  (See 
Self-Culture,  Edinburgh  1875.)  This  is  simply  an  emphatic  and  illustrative 
expansion  of  the  general  principle  above  stated  ;  namely,  that  to 
cultivate  our  faculties  we  must  properly  exercise  them.     No 

Nm-al  j^-,Qpal  culture  can  be  secured  by  the  study  of  ethics  ;  legitimate 
tuUure.  oijjgg^g  foi.  the  exercise  of  the  moral  feelings  must  be  sought 
for  and  discovered  ;  and,  more  especially,  the  will  must  be  trained  so  that 
it  will  obey  the  voice  of  reason  and  conscience,  even  amid  the  mightiest 
tempest  of  passion  and  desire.  Related  to  this,  is  the  culture 
iSoMi  ^£  ^j^^  _^^^j  —  ^  culture  which  is  paramount  to  all,  and  to  which 
Vulture.  gygj,y  other  species  of  culture  is  subservient ;  and  just  as  one 
can  learn  to  walk  only  by  walking,  to  think  only  by  thinking,  and  to  live 
nobly  only  by  acting  nobly  on  every  occasion,  so  one  can  advance  in 
spiritual  culture  only  by  communing,  by  fjrayer  and  contemplation,  with 
the  Great  Spirit,  the  Father  of  mankind,  and  the  Creator  of  the  universe. 
™  .  .  True  Christian  culture  comprehends  the  development  of  a 
LhriMian    g^pg^pj^y  ^q  (Jq  right,  and  to  be  right,  in  every  relation   which 

tuUure.  ^,g  ^^^^  ^^  g^^j^  other,  and  to  our  Maker,  simply  by  apply- 
ing the  general  principle  herein  enunciated,  of  active  beneficence,  based 
upon  the  simplest  principles  of  moral  and  religious  truth.  (See  Edu- 
cation.) 

CURRICULUM.     See  Course  of  Instruction. 


DACTYLOLOGY.  (Gr.  dcKri-Zof,  a  finger),  a  method  of  communi- 
cating ideas  by  means  of  signs  made  with  the  fingers,  composing  what  is 
called  the  manual  or  finger  alphabet,  and  employed  by  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
There  are  two  alphabets  of  this  kind:  the  single-hand  alphabet,  and  the 
two-hand  alphabet. 


78  dp:af-mutes 

DEAF-MUTES,  or  Deaf  and  Dumb,  a  class  of  persons,  scattered 
throughout  every  nation  in  a  greater  or  less  proportion,  who  cannot  hear 
the  sound  of  the  human  voice,  and,  consequently,  lose  that  sympathetic  as- 
sociation which  exists  between  the  organs  of  hearing  and  speech,  so  that 
the  latter  are  rendered  inactive,  'i'wo  methods  or  systems  of  teaching  are 
in  use  (with  some  modifications)  in  nearly  all  the  institutions  in  the  world. 
nr  th  d  f  ^^^^  ^^  ^'^'^^  ^^  arlicnlation  and  lip-reading  (sometimes  called  the 
.  .  German  method,  because  used  in  most  of  the  German  schools), 
the  other  that  of  loritiag,  or  the  sign  langwtge.  Both  have 
their  special  advocates;  and  each  it  is  claimed,  possesses  superior  facilities 
for  educating  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In  teaching  articulation,  the  pupil  is 
yjlaced  before  the  teacher,  who  begins  with  the  vowels,  and  requires  the 
pupil  to  watch  the  motions  he  makes  with  his  mouth,  lips,  and  throat;  he 
places  the  pupil's  hand  upon  his  own  throat,  so  as  to  feel  the  different 
movements,  and  then  imitate  them  himself.  AVhen  he  has  succeeded  in 
some  degree,  the  consonants  are  introduced  and  practiced  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  time,  according  to  the  ability  or  aptitude  of  the  pupil.  Simple 
words  are  then  introduced,  and  their  meaning  illustrated  by  pointing  out 
tlic  object,  action,  etc.;  and  as  progress  is  made  in  this,  qualities  and  actions 
are  introduced.  This  course  must  be  continued,  and  the  lessons  repeated, 
till  the  pupil  can  read  the  lips  of  the  teacher,  and  communicate  his  own 
thoughts,  in  questions  and  answei's.  Reading  must  then  be  taught;  and 
the  knowledge  of  language  already  acquired  aids  the  pupil  in  understand- 
ing what  he  reads.  It  will  be  a]iparent  that  this  is  a  work  requiring  much 
time  and  patience  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  of  the  ])upil,  merely 
to  acquire  the  meaning  of  the  words  and  their  jn-oper  pronunciation.  Most 
of  the  institutions  in  the  United  States  give  more  or  less  in- 
.  '"  "  "  struction  in  articulation,  generally  in  special  departments.  The 
tion  system,  q^^^^^  ln.stitution,  the  Boston  Day  School,  the  N.  Y.  Institu- 
tion for  Improved  Instruction,  and  Wliipple's  Home  School  make  articu- 
lation a  specialty.  This  mode  of  teaching  is  especially  adapted  to  the  con- 
dition of  semi-mute.x,  who  still  retain  some  renmant  of  the  ability  to  use 
spoken  language.  Experience  has  shown  that  children  deprived  of  the 
sense  of  hearing  can  learn  liy  means  of  sight  and  feeling,  to  distinguish  the 
various  elements  of  speech,  to  read  them  from  the  speaker's  lips,  and  to 
imitate  them  in  articulation. 

'J'he  other  method,  writing  and  sign-making,  is  substantially  taught  in 

the  following  manner:    An  object  is  shown  to  the  pupil,  as  for  example,  a 

cat,  and  the  natural  sign  made  for  it.  an  outline  is  then  drawn  on  the  slate, 

_j^  .  .        and  c-n-t  is  written  in  the  outline;  the  same  sign  is  applied  to 

,  .  the  name  as  was  applied  to  the  object  and  the  outline;  and  the 
an  ign-  p^pQ  ^[^^g  learns  the  word.  The  object  is  removed  and  the  out- 
"u-  jjjjg  rubbed  out;  the  same  sign  is  used  for  the  word  alone,  and 
the  pupil  soon  associates  it  with  tlie  object.  Other  objects  are  presented, 
aud  the  same  process  repeated.  The  color  of  the  cat  is  then  taught;  as,  if 
black,  that  is  joined  to  the  name,  and  black  cat  is  learned;  then  action  is 
represented,  as  black  cat  eafn;  and  then  the  object  follows,  black  cat  eats 
meat.  The  phrases  are  lengthened  as  the  pupil  proceeds,  aud  short  stories 
are  related  by  signs,  and  written  down  by  the  pupil,  the  proper  distinctions 
being  made  at  the  time,  so  that  the  pupil,  in  a  short  time,  is  enabled  to  use 


DECIMAL  NOTATION  —  DECLAMATION  79 

language  properly.  An  important  feature  of  this  metliod  is,  that  the  pupil 
beffius  at  once  to  learn  words  wliich  convey  meaning,  without  the  slow 
process  of  learning  the  alphabet,  the  single  letters  of  which  convey  no 
ideas;  and  in  this  manner  the  mind  is  quickened,  and  incited  to  redoubled 
activity  by  the  knowledge  gained.  As  this  proceeds,  the  pupil  becomes 
familiar  with  the  printed  as  AveU  as  the  written  characters,  and  soon  under- 
stands short  simple  phrases;  and  then  only  a  few  months  are  required  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  understand  clearly  what  is  related  to  him.  For  further 
information,  and  statistics,  see  Cydopoedkt  of  Education. 

DECIMAL  NOTATION,  the  ordinary  method  of  expressing  num- 
bers on  a  scale  of  ten,  ten  units  of  any  order  being  equal  to  one  unit  of  the 
next  higher  order.  The  first  lessons  in  arithmetic  should  give  the  pupil  a 
clear  idea  of  the  principle  of  this  notation.  This  can  be  done  by  means  of 
the  numeral  frame  (q.  v.). 

DECLAMATION,  or  the  formal  delivery  of  set  speeches  or  of 
memorized  pieces  of  oratory,  is  a  school  exercise  of  considerable  im- 
portance, when  conducted  in  a  proper  manner  and  with  a  due  regard  to 
„, .  its  special  uses  and  limitations.      The  objects   chiefly   to   be 

Objects  to  g^-j^g^  j^y  exercises  of  this  kind  are  the  following:  (1)  The 
be  kept  in  ^^.J^j^j^g  ^^^^  culture  of  the  voice;  (2)  Practice  in  elocution; 
vieio.  ^2)  xhe  habit  of  speaking  in  public  with  confidence,  ease,  and 
grace;  (4)  The  cultivation  of  a  taste  for  public  speaking;  (.5)  An  im- 
provement of  the  pupils'  style  of  composition.  In  the  education  of  boys 
and  young  men  particularly,  these  are  all  points  of  great  importance, 
inasmuch  as  the  ability  to  speak  effectively  in  public  is  of  great  value  in  aU 
civilized  communities. 

The  following  points  should  be  carefully  attended  to  in  giving  ele- 
mentary instruction  in  declamation:  (1)  The  piece  to  be  declaimed 
should  be  well  studied,  not  only  in  its  language,  but  in  regard 
f^''*^  to  the  thoughts,  emotions,  reasoning,  etc.  which  it  may  involve, 

"/y'  "  and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  originally  spoken,  as 
well  as  the  character  of  the  speaker;  (2)  Minute  rudimentary 
criticism  should  be  rendered  unnecessary  by  sufficient  preliminary  training 
in  enunciation  and  other  departments  of  elocution,  as  well  as  in  the  use  of 
gesticulation;  (3)  The  various  kinds  of  gestures  having  been  taught,  the 
pupil  should  be  allowed  great  freedom  in  respect  to  their  use;  (4)  The 
spirit,  and  not  simiily  the  form,  should  be  the  object  aimed  at  in  the  in- 
struction; and  no  piece  should  be  assigned  to  a  pupil  to  speak  which  is  be- 
yond his  capacity  to  understand  and  appreciate.  The  pupils  of  the  com- 
mon schools  are  generally  not  advanced  sufficiently  to  receive  theoretical 
instruction  in  rhetorical  delivery;  but  this  should  find  a  place  in  the  course 
of  instruction  of  colleges,  academies,  and  schools  of  a  higher  grade  in  gen- 
eral. Even  the  pupils  of  elementary  schools,  however,  may  be  benefited  by 
appropriate  exercises  in  recitation  and  declamation;  thus,  the  speaking  of 
easy  and  interesting  dialogues  by  two  or  more  children  will  be  found  one 
of  the  best  methods  to  impart  to  young  pupils  a  practical  knowledge  of 
the  elementary  rules  of  declamation,  besides  cultivating  a  natural  style  of 
speaking. 

DEFINITION.  In  giving  instruction  upon  any  subject,  the  need 
of  defining  terms  constantly  arises,  in  order  (1)  that  the  mind  may  clearly 


80  DEFINITIONS. 

conceive  the  object  to  -which  they  are  intended  to  apply,  and  (2)  that 
the  mind  may  understand  what  that  object  is  as  distinguished  from 
Object  of  ^^^  others.  Hence,  clearness  of  ideas  and  precision  of  thought 
dejiend  upon  accui-acy  of  definition;  for  witiiout  this  there 
must  be  a  confusion  of  hinguage  which  will  preclude  the  possibility  of 
correct  thinking  or  reasoning.  This  may  arise  either  from  a  dim  con- 
j^g;^^j-Q„  ^„  ception   of    the   thing  spoken   of,    or  from   a    misappHcation 

clearness  ^^  ^'^^  ^'^^'^  ^^^^  *°  denote  it.     It  is  a  part  of  the  fundamental 

of  ideas.    T^''^^  °^  *^'^  teacher  to   instill  the  habit  of  accurately  defin- 
ing the  terms     employed   in   every    subject   taught.     This    is 
generally  recognized,  but  the   principle  is    not  always   correctly  applied. 
It  is  customary   with    many   teachers,   and   most  writers    of  elenjentary 

Place  of  textbooks,  to  begin  with  definirions,  because  this  seems  to  be 
inteachinq  *''?  "^°^*  ^^^'^'^^  ^"  ^^^^  formal  treatment  of  any  subject;  but 
•'■  this  practice  is  opposed  to  well  -  established  principles  of 
pedagogy.  Definitions  are  dependent  upon  abstraction  and  generali- 
zation; and,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  concrete  details  from  which 
they  have  been  deduced,  they  often  convey  no  distinct  ideas  to  the 
mind.  Definition  should  not  be  confounded  with  description:  the 
former  includes  only  what  is  required  to  distinguish  the  objects  referred 
to  from  other  objects;  the  latter  should  comprehend  all  that  is  required 
to  convey  to  the  mind  a  complete  and  vivid  idea  of  the  thing  described. 
In  teaching,  we  should  rather  begin  with  description  and  end  with  defini- 
tion; and,  when,  by  this  twofold  process,  the  idea  of  what  we  wish  to  convey 
to  the  pupils'  mind  has  been  made  distinct  in  itself  and  distinguished  from 
all  other  things,  the  proper  term  should  be  associated  with  it.  This  is  ia 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  (kvelnpiag  vietliod  (q.  v.). 

DEFIZiflTIONS,  a  branch  of  elementary  education,  usually  having 
reference  to  instruction  in  the  meaning  of  words.     The  operations  of  a 

A  child's  '^^\'''^  ^  '"'"5^  naturally  lea  J  to  a  knowledge  of  words  as  represent- 
vocabulary  ^^^^^^  °^  ideas;  and,  at  quite  an  early  age.  a  child  acquires  a 
■'■  very  extensive  vocabulary  of  terms  and  the  ability  to  apply 
them  properly,  since  they  are  learned  not  by  formal  statement  or  defini- 
tion, but  by  hearing  them  used,  and  by  subsequent  practice  in  using  them 
in  connection  with  the  actual  objects  or  conceptions  which  they  represent. 
In  this  way.  the  words  which  young  children  learn  make  but  little  impres- 
sion upon  their  minds  as  icords;  but  they  are  so  intimately  as.sociated  with 
the  objects,  actions,  and  qualities  which  they  represent,  that  tliey  convey 
to  the  mind  the  same  ideas  as  the  objects,  actions,  etc.  themselves.  The 
school  exerci-^ea  or  lessons  designed  to  increase  the  child  s  vocabulary,  or  to 
teach  the  meaning  of  words  found  in  books,  often  disregard  this  natural 
raethoil  of  acquisition,  and  attempt  to  teach  the  meaning  of  individual 
■words  by  means  of  their  approximate  synonyms,  without  any  regard  to 
their  application,  or  use  in  phrases  and  sentences.     Without  an  einbodi- 

PropPT  ^}^^^  ^^  words  in  actual  speech  the  recitation  of  formal  defini- 
mefini  of  ^"^"^  '^  ^^  "^  "^°-  -^^ter  sufficient  illu.stration  of  this  kind, 
iejc.dng.  *'^^  P^P''  •'^'i""''!  ^e  required  to  tell,  in  his  own  langua-re,  the 
meaning  of  the  word  in  question,  which  the  teacher  can  then 
correct.  No  exercise  in  synonyms  is  of  any  value,  but  on  the  contrary, 
ra.her  injurious,  until  the  meaning  of  words  has  been  thus  explained.    In 


DEGREES  —  DEPARTMENTAL  SYSTEM  81 

oral  lessons  in  definitions  to  classes,  one  pupil  may  be  required  to  use  the 
given  word  in  a  phrase  or  sentence,  another  to  explain  its  meaning,  and 
another  to  give  a  brief  definition  bj-  a  synonymous  phrase  or  word.  Very 
simple  words,  the  meaning  of  which  is  already  known  to  the  child,  shoidd 
not  be  given  for  formal  definition;  since  properly  to  define  such  words,  re- 
quires a  nice  discrimination  in  the  use  of  language,  and  a  minuteness  of 
analysis  beyond  the  capacity  of  a  young  child.  A  full  exercise  of  this  kind 
should  comprise  the  following :  (1)  To  pronounce  the  word;  (2)  To  use  it 
in  the  construction  of  a  phrase  or  a  sentence;  (3)  'I'o  define  it;  (4)  To  write  a 
sentence  illustrating  its  meaning  and  use.  [A  written  exercise  for  the  whole 
class,  each  pupil  writing  a  different  sentence.]  Instruction  in  the  deriva- 
tion of  words  and  the  meaning  of  the  common  prefixes  and  suffixes  should 
be  commenced  at  an  early  stage. 

DEGREES  are  titles  of  rank  conferred  upon  students  in  colleges  and 
universities,  as  evidence  of  their  proficiency  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  or 
upon  learned  men  as  a  testimony  of  their  literary  merits.  At  first,  the 
terms  master  and  doctor  were  applied  indifferently  to  any  person  engaged 
in  teaching  in  the  university.  In  process  of  time,  the  term  master  was 
restricted  to  teachers  of  the  liberal  arts  and  the  term  doctor  to  divinity, 
law,  and  medicine.  "When  regialations  were  established  to  prevent  unquali- 
fied persons  from  teaching,  and  an  initiatory  stage  of  discipline  was 
prescribed,  these  terms  became  significant  of  a  certain  rank,  and  of  the 
possession  of  certain  powers,  and  were  called  (/rt'/c/ws, — steps  or  degrees. 
Below  is  gi\'en  a  list  of  the  various  degrees  usually  conferred  in  this 
country,  with  the  usual  abbreviations  employed  to  designate  them. 

The  colleges  for  females  confer,  in  the  place  of  the  title  Bachelor  (of 
Letters,  of  Arts,  of  Liberal  Arts),  the  title  Graduate,  though  they  retain 
the  abbreviations  L.  B.,  A.  B.,  and  B.  L.  A. 


LL.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D.,  Doctor  cf  Laws. 

L.  Sc,  Laureate  of  Science. 

M.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.  D.,  Loctor  of  Medicine. 

M.  E.,  Mining  Engineer. 

M.  E.  L.,  Mistress  of  English  Literature. 

M.  L.  A.,  Mistress  of  LilJeral  Arts. 

M.  L.  L..  Mistress  of  Liberal  Learning, 

M.  Sc,  Mistress  of  Science. 

Mis.  Mus.,  Mistress  of  Music. 

Mus.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.  D.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

Ph.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 

Ph.  D.,  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Sc.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Science. 

Sc.  M.,  Master  of  Science. 

S.  T.  D.,  Sacrae  Theologiae  Doctor. 

DEPARTMENTAL  SYSTEM,  or  Subject  System,  a  method  of 
school  organization  in  which  each  department  of  instruction  or  subject  of 
study  is  assigned  to  a  particular  teacher,  instead  of  requiring  each  teacher 
to  give  instruction  to  a  particular  class  in  all  the  branches  of  study 
pursued.  This  system  is  rarely  employed  in  schools  for  primary  instruc- 
tion; but,  in  those  of  a  higher  grade,  is  nearly  universal.  In  regard  to  its 
advantages  and  disadvantages,  as  compared  with  the  class  system,  many 
considerations  are  urged;  and  the  experience  of  instructors  seems  to  be 
quite  diverse  as  to  its  success.     I'he  chief  argument  in  its  favor  is,  that  it 


A.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
A.  L. ,  Laureate  of  Arts. 

A.  M.,  Master  of  Arts. 
A..  S.,  Sister  of  Arts. 

B.  A.,  Bachelor  of  Agriculture. 
B.  Arch.,  Bachelor  of  Architecture. 
B.  C.  E.,  Bachelor  of  Civil  Engineering. 
B.  L  A.,  Bachelor  of  Liberal  Arts. 

B.  M.  E.,  Bachelor  of  Mining  Engineering 

C.  E.,  Civil  Eugineer. 

C.  &  M.  E..  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer. 

D.  B  ,  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
D.  C.  L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Laws. 
D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
D.  D.  M.,  Doctor  of  Dental  Medicine. 
D.  E.,  Dynamic  Engineer. 
D.  Sc,  Doctor  of  S'-ience. 
L.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Letters. 


82  DEVELOPING  METHOD 

would  narrow  the  range  of  subjects  required  to  be  mastered  by  a  single 
teacher,  and,  in  this  way,  improve  the  cliaracter  of  the  instruction  imparted. 
For  other  considerations  in  regard  to  this  question,  see  Class. 

DEVELOPING  METHOD   (ia  (ierman  entwickelnde  Methode)  is  a 
term  introduced  into  the  science  and  practice  of  pedagogy  through  the 
philosophy  of  Herbart,  and  popularized  among  European  teachers  through 
_  ^   .  .       its  greatest  followers,  Beneke   and  Diesterweg.     It  means  an 
Definition,  gj^^j^j-iyj^  ^f  ^he  natural  endowments  of  the  individual  accord- 
ing to  the  psychologic  laws  of  lunnan  development,  and  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  purposes  foreign  to  such  development.     The  term,  in  some  respects, 
is  a  misnomer,  as  it  implies  far  more  than  it  expresses.     It  means  a  system, 
reahzed  in,  or  applicable  to,  a  variety  of  educational  methods,  and  based  on 
the   fundamental   principle,  that   human    nature  alone,  as  developed  and 
shown  in  its  best  products  through  a  long  historical  period,  should  be  the 
„         ,     guiding  star  in  all  educational  efforts.     Herbart,  who  was  the 
Herbart  s    ^^^^  among  the  (German  philosophers,  in  opposition  to  the  ])re- 
s<jMeiii.      ya^jiji^g  speculative  philosophy,  to  a[)ply  the  method  of  induction 
to  philosophy,  and  who  based   his  system  on  inductive  psychology,  and 
treated  the  latter  mathematically,  wrote,  as  early  as  1806,  a  work  on  jjedago- 
gy  in  which  the  new  drift  of   educational  ideas  inaugurated  by  Rousseau 
and  Pestalozzi,  was  reduced  to  logical  principles.     He  was  the  tirst  in  his- 
tory to  render  intelligible  the  processes  in  the  human  soul  which  lead  to 
memory,  comparison,  the  distinction  of  impressions  and  their  growth  into 
mental  images,  notions,  judgment  and  reason,  disposition  and  will  ;  and, 
in  so  doing,  he  reasoned  from  the  established  facts  of  consciousness,  and 
developed  a  long  series  of  mathematical /or;u!;/ce  as  evidences  of  his  cor- 
.rectness  in  interpreting  the  facts.     Beneke,  more  straight-for- 
eneiean    ^^,^^^  than  Herbart,  gave,  in  his  Lehrbuch  de)- Psi/cholugie  als 
i<f-'>         9-  ^^iiiiiricissenschnfi  (1833) ,  and  Erzieh iingi^-  mid  Unterriclitdehre 
(1835),  a  very  lucid  and  conmion-sense  exposition  of  this  new  system  of 
l)sychology,  in  its  application  to  pedagogy,  which,  through  Diestervveg's 
practical  treatises  and  school  books,  grew  almost  universally  popular  among 
the  (jcrmau  teachers.     The  founders  of  this  system  did  not  go  so  far  as  to 
reach  all  the  legitimate  conclusions  which  may  logically  be  derived  from  its 
principles,  and  which  were  drawn  by  the  succeding  generation  of  teachers. 
The  system,  as  now  taught  and  practiced  by  men  like  Dittcsand 
Improve-    ^^^^  ^f  Froebel's  followers,  has  undergone  a  series  of  gradual 
improvements,  and  seems  ca])able  of  many  more  ;  since  human 
nature  itself  is  a  subject  that  receives,  through  the  constant  improvement 
of  all  the  natural  sciences,  a  daily  increasing  illustration.     Nor  is  there, 
as  yet,  a  complete  agreement  among  the  foremost  pedagogical  writers 
upon  what  may  be  considered  the  genuine  development  of  human  nature  ; 
l)ut  the  principle  itself,  that  the  spontaneous  growth  of  all  the  faculties  of 
the  mind  into  the  greatest  possible  harmony  should  be  facilitated  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  norn^al  development,  which  are  to  be  faithfully  followed, 
not   counteracted ;   guided,  but  not   curbed  —  and   all  this  in  the  order 
which  is  indicated  by  nature  herself  —  this  principle  seems  to  be  so  well 
established,  that,  henceforth,  only  its  interpretation  can  be  doubtful. 

This  new  psychology  sails  clear  of  all  the  rocks  of  preceding  systems 
and  of  the  maelstrom  of  party  strife ;  it  deals  with  none  but  demonstrable 


DEVELOPING  METHOD  83 

facts.  Such  facts  are,  that  the  unfolding  of  intelligence  and  mental  activity 
in  the  newborn  child  is  caused  by  impressions  from  without;  that  the  latter, 
p  ,  called  traces,  cannot  grow  into  distinct  images  without  a  group- 
Founda-  j^^  ^^  ^j^^  traces  in  an  order  corresponding  to  the  outward  ob- 
tionfacis.  j^^^g  .  ^j^^^  ^g  ^^^  verify  by  actual  experiment,  both  with  ani- 
mals and  men,  the  laws  according  to  which  equal  traces  strengthen  each 
other,  and  similar  ones  aggregate  and  form  opposites  to  dissimilar  groups  of 
traces  ;  that  fugitive  impressions  have  obscure  traces,  lasting  or  often  re- 
peated impressions,  clear  traces  ;  that  one  trace  or  set  of  traces  is  for  a 
time  obscured  by  new  ones,  and  that  the  consciousness  of  an  image  is  the 
effect  of  either  pleasure  or  pain  of  the  mind  in  consequence  of  the  impres- 
sions, etc.,  etc.  The  theory  goes  on  to  show  that  all  the  higher 
Mental  ^^^^^^^^^  processes  are  repetitions  of  the  photographic  action  of 
processes.  ^^^  ^^^^  traces,  in  a  higher  order,  and  follow  with  mathematical 
exactness  their  laws.  A  normal  pedagogy  is,  therefore,  possible,  inde- 
pendent of  philosophical  systems.  Disputed  questions  of  physiology  and 
psychology  concern  only  unimportant  topics,  and,  therefore,  may  be  ignored 
and  left  to  the  future  development  of  science  ;  but  it  is  all-important  in 
pedagogy  to  demonstrate  clearly  all  the  conditions  without  which  no  mind 
can  grow,  whatever  the  nature  of  mind  itself  may  be. 

It  is,  therefore,  of  the  first  importance  to  cultivate  the  action  of  the 
senses,  the  gates  to  all  mental  development,  in  such  a  way  as  to  render 
them  self-active  by  their  appropriate  combination  with  pleasure 
Progress-  ^^^  -^^i^-^  next,  to  oifer  to  their  self -activity  a  succession  of  out- 
ive  steps,  ^^j.^  impressions  which  will  leave  distinct  and,  by  repetition, 
lasting  traces  and  the  most  complete  images  of  objects,  accompanied  by 
sensations  and  impulses.  The  first  consciousness  being  thus  awakened,  it 
follows  that  a  comparison  and  distinction  of  the  representations  once  pro- 
duced must  lead  to  both  clear  notions  of  their  single  features  and  clear 
consciousness  of  the  mind,  without  which  the  origin  of  self-consciousness 
would  be  retarded,  and  its  growth  stunted.  The  latter  taking  its  start 
from  the  first  efforts  in  speaking,  language  becomes  the  chief  means  of  edu- 
cation, and  its  proper  use  on  the  part  of  the  educator,  in  connection  with 
the  objects  designated,  the  way  to  the  subsequent  normal  development. 
The  gap  in  this  system  left  between  this  stage  and  the  first  school  age  was 
not  filled  until  Froebel,  starting  from  a  somewhat  different  stand-point, 
invented  his  kindergarten  plays. 

Great  stress  is,  in  this  system,  laid  on  the  gradual  progress  of  educa- 
tion, which,  after  all,  is  little  more  than  instruction,  a  somewhat  one-sided 
culture  of  the  intellect,  the  imagination,  and  the  memory.  The 
Practical  ^^^^T^^y.  jg  -j-q  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  compound,  from  the 
rules.  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  perception  to  reflection  in  the  pu- 
pil, from  examples  to  rules,  horn,  facts  to  laivs.  He  is  to  be  more  a  guide 
than  a  teacher;  he  is  not  to  tell  his  pupils  any  thing  which  they  can  be  led 
to  find  out  themselves.  He  is  to  present  them  just  mental  food  enough, 
and  no  more,  at  a  time,  than  can  be  fully  digested;  and  that  food  ought  to 
be  adapted  to  the  age  and  degree  of  development.  Every  kind  of  mental 
food  ought  to  be  so  fully  digested  as  to  contribute  to  the  strengthening  of 
every  mental  faculty.  The  pupil  is  to  be  rendered  his  own  teacher;  his 
self-activity  is  to  be  fostered  first,  last,  and  at  all  times. 


84  DEVELOPING  METHOD 

The  cultivation  of  the  memory  at  the  expense  of  observation  and  re- 
flection, which,  in  all  routine  teachinnj,  plays  so  prominent  a  part,  is  made 
■p    ,■  unnecessary  by  stiinulutiiiof  the  mental  appetite  and  digestive 

ou.m  power  of  the  pupil;  whatever  is  fully  understood  will  forever  re- 
"^'  main  mental  property.  All  mechanical  drill,  and  all  moral 
preaching,  is  more  hurtful  than  useful,  because  skill  in  the  learner  is  to 
grow  out  of  repeated  self -appropriation  connected  with  that  pleasure  which 
accompanies  the  satisfaction  of  every  mental  appetite;  and  because  an  ap- 
propriate mental  food  is  conducive  to  moral  power.  Development  means 
self-development,  guided  by  well-developed  educators. 

It  is  evident  that  this  new  system  exacts  a  far  higher  standard  of  abili- 
ties and  attainments  in  the  educator  than  ever  before  had  been  deemed 
^  .  .  necessary.  This  necessity  led  to  a  considerable  improvement  in 
^^°  _  the  course  of  training  of  pupil  teachers  in  the  (German  and  other 
requu  -  nQj-nial  schools.  "The  teacher  is  the  school,"  was  the  maxim  in- 
culcated there.  If  he  be  the  proper  person  destined  by  natural 
gifts  and  prepared  for  his  calling  by  a  careful  study  of  mental  phenomena 
and  a  long  theoretic  and  practical  training,  he  will  make  up  for  the  short- 
comings of  text-books,  apparatus,  and  previous  education.  If  he  be  full  of 
enthusiasm  for  his  sacred  task  of  forming  minds,  and  patient  in  all  his 
laborious  methods,  he  will  mould  his  pupils'  minds  and  morals  by  means 
of  their  self-development.  The  rational  sobriety  of  this  system  was  greatly 
aided  by  the  marvelous  spirit  of  self-devotion  and  educational  enthusiasm 
which  had  been  engendered  in  the  teaching  fraternity  by  Festalozzi;  and 
it  may  be  called  a  fact,  that  hardly  ever,  or  anywhere,  was  there  done  such 
intelligent  and  faithful  work  in  thousands  of  schools,  and  for  so  scanty  a 
remuneration,  as  in  the  devetoping-vietliod  schools  up  to  the  period  of  the 
"School  Regulations." 

Among  the  reforms  in  special  methods  that  followed  in  the  wake  of 
this  system,  must  first  be  mentioned  the  introduction  of  phonic  or  phonetic 
P  ,  reading.     Spelling  was  althogether  superseded,  and  orthographi- 

ejorm.!^  ^^j  ^yj.j(.jp,g  exercises  substituted,  based  on  a  few  rules  which  the 
^"  /^^"r?  piipils  had  to  deduce  for  themselves  from  a  comparison  of  ex- 
^^  '^  ■  amples.  Griiser  and  Vogel  improved  this  method,  which  is 
liable  to  be  too  mechanically  applied,  by  combining  it  with  the  wrilinci- 
readinfi  and  the  syntJietico-annl/itic  methods.  The  former  begins  with 
analyzing  the  single  sounds  of  which  the  words  consist  and  teaching  the 
written  signs  for  them,  and  continues  with  writing  these  and  other  words; 
printed  words,  or  rather  sentences,  arc  introduced  when  the  pupils  can 
read  all  written  letters,  and  thereafter  all  that  has  been  read  must  be  fault- 
lessly copied.  'J'he  latter  begins  with  sentences  that  must  be  analyzed  into 
their  component  words,  and  the  words  into  their  component  sounds;  the 
corresponding  signs  (letters)  are  then  given,  cither  in  written,  or  in  printed 
form,  or  in  both  (as  in  Douai's  method,  exemplified  in  his  Rdtiotial  Readers) 
and  then  synthesis-reading  begins,  accompanied  with  constant  copying  ex- 
ercises, which  must  be  carefully  regulated.  Another  improvement  has 
been  effected  by  connecting  penmanship  exercises  with  the  tirst  writing  ex- 
ercises by  means  of  time-beating  {Tnk/sc/zreiben).  The  object  is  to  prevent 
the  formation  of  careless  habits  instead  of  weeding  them  out  when  formed, 
which  is  still  further  aimed  at  by  reading  in  concert,  alternately  with  indi- 


DEVELOPING  METHOD  85 

vidual  reading.  In  arithmetic,  the  beginning  was  made  with  mental  exer- 
cises in  the  analytic  method;  but  there  is  a  great  variety  in  the  methods 
of  connecting  analysis  with  ciphering,  and  in  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
carried.  Great  importance,  however,  is  universally  attributed  to  a  full 
understanding  of  the  value  of  numbers,  both  single  and  in  their  decimal 
orders.  Some  methods,  progressing  through  concentric  circles  of  1 — 10, 
10 — 100,  100 — 1000,  etc.,  involve,  within  each  circle,  all  the  four  ground 
rules;  some,  only  addition  and  subtraction  together,  and,  later,  multiplica- 
tion and  division  together;  some,  only  one  at  a  time,  with  larger  concentric 
circles,  etc.  Some  introduce  the  elements  of  fractions  at  a  very  early 
stage,  dividing  them  also  into  concentric  circles;  some  introduce  decimal 
fractions  even  before  common  fractions.  Object  lessons  in  special  branches, 
according  to  the  older  (Pestalozzian)  process,  were  to  some  extent  crowded 
out  when  all  teaching  became  object  teadnng;  yet  special  object  lessons  in 
zoology  and  botany,  geometry  and  geography,  remained  favorite  branches 
in  most  plans  of  teaching.  The  method  of  teaching  the  mother-tongue  is 
also  very  variable;  but,  through  all  the  variety,  a  tendency  is  conspicuous 
to  make  the  most  of  the  pupil's  self-activity  by  guiding  him  to  form  sen- 
tences orally  and  in  writing,  whether  for  orthographical,  grammatical,  rhe- 
torical, or  elocutionary  purposes.  Grammatical  analysis  with  parsing  oc- 
cupies far  less  time  than  synthesis.  It  is  a  strange  fact  that  the  study 
of  Latin  and  Greek  has,  only  recently  and  to  a  very  limited  extent, 
been  subjected  to  the  same  method;  but  the  modern  languages  were 
treated  in  the  analytico-synthetic  way  (not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
Ahn  or  Ollendorff  method,  from  which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  scientific, 
pedagogic  spirit,  and  far  greater  efficiency).  There  is  an  endless  variety 
of  special  methods  in  all  branches  of  primary  and  secondary  instruction, 
which  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  explain. 

It  is  useless  to  discuss  the  merits  and  shortcomings  of  special  methods, 

since  any  one  of  them  that  has  passed  the  ordeal  of  a  practical  applica- 

Meihods   ^^^^  ^  ^^^  school  room  may  be  called  good,  because  adapted 

not  to     to  the  genius  both  of  the  teacher  and  his  particular  class  of 
he  stereo-  pupils.     No  single  practical  method  can  claim  universal  appli- 

typed.  cability;  since  every  one  will  need  to  be  modified  in  order  to  be 
adapted,  not  only  to  the  teacher's  peculiar  development,  but  aLso  to 
that  of  the  class  or  pupil.  He  is  a  bad  follower  of  the  developing 
method  who  treats,  year  in  and  year  out,  every  new  class  of  pupils 
according  to  a  stereotyped  manner  for  each  branch  of  instruction,  instead 
of  accommodating  himself  to  the  wants  of  the  class.  The  developing 
method  means  nothing  more  nor  less  than  that  there  shall  be  method 
in  all  the  teacher's  doings,  —  a  well-concerted  plan,  calculated  to  develop 
every  gift  of  each  pupil  by  educating  him  to  self-activity  in  every  branch 
of  the  curriculum,  and  to  produce  a  certain  degree  of  uniform  general 
development  without  neglecting  either  the  forward,  or  the  backward 
portion  of  the  class.  And  high  as  this  standard  of  effectiveness  may  be, 
experience  proves  that  it  will  be  almost  universally  realized,  if  the  posi- 
tion of  the  teacher  be  sufficiently  remunerative,  independent,  and  honored, 
to  attract  to  the  profession  all  persons  born  to  be  teachers.  This  reali- 
zation has,  moreover,  been  considerably  facilitated  by  the  preparation  for 
primary  classes,  obtained  from  Froebel  s  kindergarten. 


86  DIARY  —  DIDACTICS 

DIARY,  School,  a  daily  record  of  the  lessons,  recitations,  deportment, 
etc.,  of  pupils,  kept  in  a  small  book  which  is  taken  home  each  day,  or  each 
week,  to  be  exliibited  to  the  parents,  whose  inspection  is  attested  by  their 
sif^nature  previous  to  the  diary  "s  being  returned  to  the  teacher.  Thus,  a 
constant  correspondence  is  kept  up  between  parent  and  teacher,  the  former 
beinff  continuously  informed  of  the  child's  progress,  merit  or  demerit,  and 
behavior;  and  thus  enabled  intelligently  to  co-operate  in  his  school  educa- 
tion.    Instead  of  the  diary,  some  teachers  prefer  the  monthly  report. 

DICTATION,  a  school  exercise  in  which  the  teacher  reads  or  speaks 
(dictates)  to  the  pupils  what  is  to  be  written  by  the  latter  for  practice 
in  writing,  spelling,  etc.  Such  exercises  are  very  useful,  not  only  to 
give  accuracy  and  expertness  in  writing  words  and  sentences,  but  to 
train  the  ear  to  the  ready  apprehension  of  spoken  language.  In  this 
respect,  it  supplements  copying,  which  exclusively  disciplines  the  eye. 

DIDACTICS,  the  theory  of  instruction,  as  distinguished  from  that 

of  education  in  its  narrower  sense,  implying  simply  moral  education.     It 

is  commonly  treated  under  two  heads:  general  didactics,  which  exhibits 

Definition  the  philosophical  principles  of  teaching,  and  the  conditions  of 

^and       its  success;  and  special  didactics,  or  inethodics,  which  applies 

division,    the  general  truths  to  the  several  branches  of  instruction,  the 

different  ages  to  be  instructed,  and  the  various  individual  characters  and 

their  treatment.     The  distinction  between  didactics  and  pedagogy  in  the 

narrower  sense  is  made  only  for  the  sake  of  separate  scientific  treatment, 

as  it  is  universally  conceded  that  all  instruction  can  be  rendered 

•   ./^'V      ^  nieans  of  moral  education,  and  that  no  instruction  deserves 

^"moraf^^  the  name,  or  can  be  truly  successful,  without  a  corresponding 

development  of  moral  power.     In  any  branch  of  instruction, 

the  very  first  beginning  presupposes  attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupil, 

while  the  progress  made  will  depend  on  his  self-act ioit>/,  and  his  ultimate 

mastership  on  his  full  appropriation  of  all  the  moral  power  inherent  in 

the  branch  of  art  or  science  concerned.     On   the   part  of  the  teacher, 

moral  power,  engendered  by  such  mastership,  must  be  presupposed,  if 

he  is   to  impart  to   his  pupil  attention,  self-activity,  and  love   for  the 

Consid-    subject.     In  regard  to  the   age  of  the  pupil,  iustruction  and 

cration  of  moral  education   bear   to   each  other  a  changing  proportion. 

age.       During  the  first  age,  —  from  earliest  infancy  up  to  the  eighth 

or   tenth   year,  the   so-called  formal  purpose  of   education  prevails  in 

importance;  the  several  functions   of   the  youthful  mind  must  be  made 

self-active,  and  the  material  purpose  of   didactics,  —  the  acquisition  of 

knowledge  or  positive  learning,  must  be  made  a  mere  means  to  the  former, 

so  that  no  more  of  each  concentric  circle  of  facts  be  given  to  apjiropriate 

than  can  be  digested  for  the  benefit  of  each  function.     The  second  age, 

which  extends  to  the   beginning  of  sexual  maturity,  is  the  one  during 

which  instruction  and  education  should  be,  as  it  were,  in  equipoise;  while, 

in  the   period    after   sexual  maturity,  the  material  purpose,  that  of   the 

acquisition  of  knowledge  and  skill,  may  preponderate.     In  regard  to  the 

branches  of  instruction,  general  didactics  shows  which  of  these  are  adapted 

to  the  several  stages  of  the  mental  and  moral  development  of  the  three 

ages,  and  which  concentric  circle  of  facts  and  truths  of  every  science  and 

art  may  be  introduced  at  the  time  when  it  can  ser\'e  as  wholesome  mental 


DILIGENCE  87 

and  moral  food,  A  most  important  distinction  is  made  between  the 
pedagogical  and  the  scientific  treatment  of  every  subject  of  instruction, 
Pedaqoqi-  ^^6  latter  being  of  necessity  systematic  and  synthetic,  while  the 
cal  and  former  should  be  methodic  and  analytic  first,  synthetic  last; 
scientific  that  is  to  say,  should  introduce  every  object  of  learning  at 
treatment,  g^^j^  ^  time,  and  in  such  a  manner,  that  it  may  be  mentally  and 
morally  appropriated. 

Special  didactics,  commonly  designated  as  meihodics,  treats  of  the 
pedagogical  means  proper  in  each  branch  of  instruction,  at  each  age  and 
stage  of  development.  An  explanation  of  the  more  important 
Special  jngtijo(jg  q{  didactics  will  be  found  under  the  titles  of  the  various 
didactics,  i^panches.  In  general,  however,  we  may  state  that  all  prominent 
educators  concur  in  holding  that  the  teacher  is  every-where  the  best 
method,  as  he  is  in  fact  the  school  itself,  if  he  be  a  true  teacher.  It  would, 
however,  be  a  dangerous  error  to  suppose,  on  that  account,  that  every 
teacher  should  be  left  free  to  invent  his  own  methods,  or  could  be  expected 
to  be  successful  without  an  acquaintance  with  the  best  methods  in  use. 
This  error  will  be  avoided  by  those  who,  on  the  one  hand,  are  so  deeply 
imbued  with  the  great  responsibility  of  their  calling,  as  to  feel  that  the 
wisdom  of  the  preceding  generations  of  great  teachers  cannot  be  neglected, 
and,  therefore,  that  the  methods  devised  and  practiced  by  them  should  be 
made  a  subject  of  faithful  and  conscientious  study;  but  who,  on  the  other 
hand,  realize  the  principle  that  the  most  approved  methods  cannot  benefit 
a  teacher  who  has  not  mentally  so  appropriated  them  as  to  reproduce  them 
accordhig  to  his  own  individuality,  and  to  be  able  to  adapt  them 
to  the  peculiar  wants  of  his  pupils,  as  weU  as  to  all  other  circum- 
stances in  which  he  is  placed.  AU  teaching  should  be  methodical  in 
every  aspect;  it  should  be  based  on  the  thorough  appropriation  of  a 
proper  system  of  pedagogy;  and  it  should  be  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the 
teacher's  personaUty,  if  it  ia  to  perform  its  proper  oflBce  in  the  work  of 
real  education. 

DILIGENCE,  the  virtue  of  constancy  in  labor,  is  an  important, 
though  not  the  sole,  means  of  success  in  any  branch  of  human  calling.  It 
is  a  function  of  the  will  power,  as  distinguished  from  intellect  and  sensa- 
tion, and  is  of  spontaneous  growth,  wherever  the  occupation  is  akin  to  the 
inclination  and  productive  of  pleasure.  It  can,  therefore,  artificially  be 
engendered  only  by  connecting  the  occupation  with-  pleasurable  emotions 
that  are  not  foreign  to  the  subject.  Where  the  latter  are  missing,  only  dire 
necessity  can  keep  diligence  alive,  —  either  some  necessity  from  natural,  or 
from  positive  law.  But  then  diligence  has  ceased  to  be  a  virtue,  though 
it  may  continue  as  a  habit,  mechanically  as  it  were.  In  education,  diUgence 
is  more  powerful  than  natural  adaptation,  as  all  the  experience  derived 
from  the  history  of  great  men  shows.  It  is  the  office  of  pedagogy  to 
promote  diligence  in  the  pupils  by  spontaneous  growth,  as  is  done  in  the 
kindergarten  system  of  education.  Where  such  spontaneous  growth  has 
not  been  effected  by  early  influences,  an  artificial  growth  must  be  cultivated; 
but  the  pleasurable  emotions  to  be  connected  vv'ith  the  occupation,  should 
be  prompted  as  Uttle  as  possible  by  means  foreign  to  the  siibject,_such  as, 
for  instance,  outward  punishments,  rewards,  purely  mechanical  discipline, 
or  the  stimulus  of  ambition.     "Whatever  the  occupation  or  study  in  which 


88  DIPLOMA  —  DISCIPLINE 

pupils  are  required  to  engage,  they  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be  induced 
to  take  a  lively  interest  in  it  for  its  own  sake;  because  such  an  interest  will 
arouse  into  active  exercise  all  the  best  powers  of  their  minds,  and  thus  lead 
to  the  most  effective  and  salutary  educational  discipline.  Besides,  the  habit 
of  depending  upon  external  incentives,  —  the  love  of  distinction,  of  praise, 
of  pleasure,"'or  of  gain,  must  necessarily  engender  selfishness,  and  thus 
narrow  and  debase  the  mind  wliich  a  generous,  earnest  zeal  iu  the  pursuit 
of  a  praiseworthy  object  would  expand  and  ennoble. 

DIPLOMA  (Gr.  dl-'/Miia,  any  thing  doubled,  or  folded),  a  terra  an- 
ciently given  to  a  formal  certificate  of  authority,  because  such  documents 
were  usually  written  on  double  or  folded  waxen  tablets.  In  more  modern 
times,  the  term  was  applied  to  a  royal  charter  or  to  any  governmental 
testimonial  of  autliority  privilege,  or  dignity.  (Hence  the  science  of  state 
documents  is  called  diplomatics.)  The  term  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  a 
certificate  given  by  a  university,  college,  or  other  literary  institution,  as  an 
evidence  that  the  person  upon  whom  it  is  conferred  has  attained  a  certain 
decree  of  scholarship;  or,  in  the  case  of  professional  schools,  as  a  license  to 
practice  a  particular  art. 

DISCIPLINE  (Lat.  disciplina,  from  discere,  to  learn), a  term  which, 
according  to  its  literal  acceptation,  means  the  condition  of  a  disciple,  or 
learner;  that  is,  subordination  requiring  strict  obedience  to  cer- 
Dejinition.  ^.^-^^^  directions  or  rules,  or  conformity  with  a  system  of  instruc- 
tion, having  for  its  object  some  kind  of  training.  Hence  the  word  dis- 
cipline is  sometimes  used  in  an  active  sense  as  synonymous  with  training  or 
culture,  as  in  the  expression  intellectual  or  moral  discipline.  Sometimes 
it  is  employed  to  denote  school  government;  and,  frequently  also  punish- 
ment for  the  commission  of  offenses.  The  word,  however,  should,  partic- 
ularly in  education,  be  confined  to  its  strict  meaning  as  above  defined.  In 
all  teaching,  there  is  need  of  attention  and  obedience  on  the  part 
Need  of  ^^j  ^|jg  pupil;  and  as  an  important  aim  of  education  is  to  instill 
discipline.  ^^^^.^^^^  habits  as  a  basis  for  the  formation  of  character,  the 
learner  must  be  required  constantly  and  punctiliously  to  conform  to  certain 
rules  and  general  precepts;  and  the  discipline  of  the  teacher  is  good  or  bad 
in  proportion  as  he  succeeds  in  enforcing  obedience  to  these  necessary 
rules.  In  large  schools,  the  system  of  regulations  becomes  more  compli- 
cated, and  a  habitual  ready  attention  to  them  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
produces  what  is  technically  called  order.  (See  Ordeii.)  This 
Order.  j.jjj^  ^^f  discipline  assimilates  to  what  is  required  in  an  army, 
with  the  special  object  of  so  unifying  a  large  number  of  men  that  they  may 
be  moveil  as  a  single  person.  In  military  discipline,  the  individual  is  sacri- 
ficed to  the  general  object  to  be  attained  by  its  enforcement;  indeed,  he 
has  no  claim  to  consideration,  except  what  is  secondary  and  subordinate. 
The  danger,  in  the  management  of  large  schools,  is  that  the  same  principle 
will  be  applied,  the  interests  of  the  pupils  as  individuals  being  lost  sight  of 
iu  the  endeavor  to  enforce  mere  diseii)line  for  the  purpose  of  general  man- 
a-^'ement  or  .show.  In  e<Uication,  however,  the  interests  of  the  individual 
should  never  be  disregarded.  School  machinery,  —  marching  and  counter- 
marching, simultaneous  movements,  the  motionless  gaze,  or  the  dead  silence 
of  multitudes  of  children,  all  perhaps  trembling  under  restraint,  certainly 
constitutes  a  kind  of  discipline,  but  a  kind,  if  not  absolutely  pernicious,  of 


DISCIPLINE  89 

but  little  educational  value.     Order  is  indispensable  to  the  proper  working 
of  a  school;  but  it  has  been  well  remarked  that  "good  order  involves  im- 
pression rather  than  repression;  it  does  not  consist  in  a  coercion  from  which 
result  merely  silence,  and  a  vacant  gaze  of  painful  restraint;  but  it  proceeds 
from  the  steady  action  of  awakened  and  interested  intellect,  —  the  kind- 
ling of  an  earnest  purpose  and  an  ambition  to  excel. "     Hence,  the  dis- 
cipline that  is  necessary  to  produce  order  in  a  school  or  class,  is  of  second- 
ary importance,  in  comparison  with  that  which  has  for  its  object  to  train 
the  intellectual  and  moral  nature  of  the  pupils  as  individuals.     "By  dis- 
cipline",   says  Currie,  "we  understand  the  application  of  the 
Motites    motives  which  prompt  the  pupil  to  diligent  study  and  to  good 
cuUicated.  conduct";  that  is,  such  motives  as  the  desire  of  the  approbation 
of  teacher  or  parent,  emulation,  or  the  desire  of  distinction,  the 
hope  of  reward,  and  the  fear  of  punishment.     To  what  extent  these  mo- 
tives should  be  resorted  to,  and  their  comparative  efficacy  in  dealing  with 
children  of  different  temperaments  and  traits  of  character,  constitute  im- 
portant subjects  for  careful  discussion.     (See  Govekmment,  and  Rewards). 
All  moral  discipline   must  be  directed  to  the  training  of  the  will;  and 
it  is  in  this  connection  that  the  consideration  of  motives  becomes  of  primary 
importance.     Kducators  are  at  considerable  variance  as  to  the 
Moral     proper  methods  of  controlling  the  will  of  children.     Some  ad- 
iscip  in  .  ^^^^^.j^^g^  jj^  ^Ij  cases,  an  application  of  the  law  of  kindness,  and 
contend  that  physical  force  should  never  be  brought  in  to  coerce  or  restrain 
even  the  most  self-willed   pupil;  others  are  of  the  opinion,  based  on  ex- 
perience, as  they  claim,  that,  in  some  cases,  physical  punishment  is  in- 
dispensable.    The  best  training  is,  without  doubt,  that  which  brings  into 
play  the   pupils  higher  nature,   and  leaves  him  habitually  actuated  by 
motives  derived  from  it.     The  child  cannot  be  always  restrained  by  fear,  — 
that  is,  the  fear  of  immediate  physical  pain;  and,  hence,  the  discipline  to 
which  he  is  to  be  subjected,  should  be  such  as  will  implant  motives  and 
principles  of  conduct  that  will  be  effective  as  a  means  of  permanent  self- 
control.     The  mere  subduing  of  the  will  of  children  is  not  suffi- 
^ewill^  cient;  indeed,  it  may  be  injurious.     The  aim  of  the  teacher 
should  be  to  bring  the  will  into  subjection  to  conscience  and  a 
sense  of  right;  in  the   words  of  a  distinguished  educator,  " to  discourage 
the  child  in  the  proper  development  of  its  nature  has  a  tendency  to  crush 
out    the   life    of  the  child  rather  than  to  cultivate  that  life  into  better 
methods  of  thought  and  action".     The  motives  brought  to  bear  in  the 
school-room  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  those  which  will  be  operative  in 
after  life.     Special  school  incentives,  such  as  merit  marks  etc.. 
Incentives.  ^^^  ixseful  and  proper  within  certain  limitations;  but  the  great 
aim  should  be  to  dispense  with  them,  and  substitute  natural  for  artificial 
motives  —  motives  that  will  cling  to  the  child  during  his  whole  after  life. 
Unnatural,   overstrained  discipline,    that  is,  the  exaction  of  a 
^^^f^'f  precise  conformity  with  the  minor  regulations  of  a  school,  not 
^^      '  only  crushes  out  the  individuality  of  the  child  for  the  time,  but 
in  its  reaction  engenders  a  feeling  of  resistance  in  his  mind,  which,  having 
no  outward  demonstration,  naturally  results  in  a  habit  of  deceit.    Nothing 
is  so  baneful  to  the  nature  of  a  child  as  an  atmosphere  of  tyranny  and 
arbitrary  power;  and  any  system  of  discipline  that  is  founded  exclusively 


90  DISGRACE  —  DIVERSIONS 

upon  it,  must  produce  the  -worst  effects  possible.    After  all,  the  best  dis- 
cipline, even  if  the  outward  order  should  not  be  so  exact,  is  that  which  is 

brought  to  bear  upon  the  pupils  through  the  consistent  example, 
teaU-     ^"'^  ^^^  kindly  heart-felt  sympathies,  of  the  living  teacher,  whose 

very  presence  is  sunshine  to  his  school,  and  who  quells  wayward- 
ness by  the  sublimity  of  his  patience,  firmness,  and  perfect  self-control. 
"  The  discipline  of  a  school"',  says  Baldwin,  in  The  A7't  of  School  Miuiage- 
ment  (New  York,  1881),  "should  be  intrusted  to  no  one  unfamiliar  with 
the  science  of  duty,  for  everything  of  value  to  human  beings  is  involved  in 
this  science"  (See  Conscience,  Cultuke  of.) 
DISGRACE.     See  Punishment. 

DIVERSIONS.     An  important  part  of  the  education  of  youth  con- 
sists in  affording  them  an  opportunity  for  natural, unrestrained  diversions, 

in  which  they  may  have  free  scope  to  exercise  mind  and  body, 

Scope  to  he  particularly  the  latter,  according  to  their  inclinations.     During 

gicm     ^jjQ  early  period  of  childhood,  no  tasks  can  be  or  need  be  im- 

impulse.   posed    to  guide  or  accelerate  the  natural  development  of  the 

mental  and  physical  faculties;  the  buds  of  humanity  open  of 
themselves,  if  their  condition  is  normal,  and  their  growth  is  not  arrested 
by  injudicious  interference.  At  firet,  nature,  as  a  wise  educator,  trains 
through  the  pleasurable  emotions;  for  the  impulses  which  she  inspires  are 
all  to  varied  activity,  and  activity  is  delight  when  nerves  and  muscles  have 
the  spring  of  health  and  vital  energy.  A  few  lessons  in  conscious  restraint 
are  all  that  this  period  requires  or  admits.  They  are  i)urely  negative, 
checking  the  violence  of  natural  impulse,  not  urging  the  child's  activity  in 

any  particular  direction.  This  is  the  education  of  home  and 
i7ome  parents,  when  presided  over  by  love  and  good  sense,  during  the 
■  first  years  of  the  child's  existence, — a  period  of  continuous  diver- 
sion. "When  the  age  for  serious  application  begins,  —  the  season  for  labor, 
or  occupation  under  restraint,  the  educator  should  strive  to  make  the 
transition  as  easy  and  gentle  as  possible.  Frequent  diversions  should  be 
intermingled  with  formal  exercises;  and  much  will  be  gained  if  those  exer- 
cises be  made  to  partake  of  the  nature  of  diversions,  by  having  the 
characteristics  of  novelty  and  variety,  and  by  stimulating  the  child's 
curiosity.     As  the  age  of  the  child  increases,  passing  into  youth,  the  times 

for  regular  occupation  and  for  recreation,  or  diversions,  become 
IHtei-sions  j^^Qj-e  distinctly  separated.  1'he  boy  or  the  girl  is  gradually  led 
in  you  I.  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  there  are  duties  to  be  performed,  as  well  as  sports  to 
be  enjoyed;  and  that  the  pleasure  received  from  the  latter  will  be  greatly 
increased  by  the  feeling  that  it  has  been  earned  by  a  conscientious  devotion 
to  the  former.  Hence,  umler  no  circumstances,  should  youth  be  deimved 
of  their  opportunities  for  free  and  innocent  recreations,  except  as  a  penalty 

for  misdoing  or  neglect  of  duty.     The  oltice  of  diversions  is 

Office,     twofold,  —  recreation  and  exercise,     'i'he  former  is  absolutely 

essential   after  studious  employment,  to  refresh  the  mind;  and  the  latter 

is  needed  to  give  healtli'and  vigor  to  the  body.     Those  sports  are  the  best, 

therefore,  which  combine  cheerful  relaxation  of  the  one  with  the  due 

employment  of  the  other.     Boys,  if  left  to  themselves,  will  take 

Treatment  yjoignj  exercise,  and  thus  develop  their  physical  powers  and  pro- 

"    mote   their  growth;  and   girls  wiU  select  sports  of  a  lighter 


DRAWING  91 

character,  —  such  as  are  adapted  to  their  different  physical  constitution. 
It  is  a  serious  error  on  the  part  of  parents  to  keep  their  boys  under  painful 
restraint,  and,  from  solicitude  for  their  safety,  to  debar  them  the  enjoyment 
of  diversions  common  to  their  age,  because  attended  -with  some  degree  of 
danger.  Excessive  maternal  tenderness  and  care  thus  exercised  must 
result  in  rendering  boys  effeminate,  and  unfit  to  cope  with  the  dangers  and 
trials  of  subsequent  hfe.  The  only  need  of  restraint  is  to  keep  boys  from 
vicious  actions,  low  company,  petulance  and  a  contentious  spirit  in  their 
sports,  and  from  too  daring  and  perilous  feats  of  agility  and  strength. 
Gymnastic  exercises  may  also  be  made  a  recreation,  and,  when  carried  on 
with  some  system,  they  constitute  an  important  part  of  a  regular  physical 
education.  (See  Gymnastics.)  AVhat  has  been  called  atJdetics,  —  rowing, 
swimming,  riding,  ball-playing,  cricket,  etc.,  are  greatly  to  be  encouraged 
in  the  maturer  periods  of  youth,  not  only  on  account  of  their  effect  in  devel- 
oping physical  vigor,  but  because  they  keep  those  who  actively  engage  in 
them  from  those  vicious  indulgences  which  constitute  the  great  peril  of 
that  age.  As  for  the  more  quiet  in-door  pastimes,  they  should  be  en- 
couraged with  moderation.  Chess  and  draughts  may  be  permitted;  but, 
in  these  games,  particularly  in  the  former,  there  is  great  danger  of  excess; 
and  it  has  never  been  demonstrated  that  a  good  chess-player  is,  on  that  ac- 
count, good  for  any  thing  but  to  play  chess.  The  game  of  billiards  gives 
training  to  the  hand  and  the  eye'  and  involves  considerable  exercise, 
moderate  but  healthful:  yet  it  may  be  doubted  whether  youth  should  be  en- 
couraged to  engage  in  it,  because  of  its  fascinating  character  and  its  tendency 
to  draw  their  attention  from  more  useful  and  necessary  employments,  not 
to  mention  the  dangerous  associations  of  the  billiard  room. 

DRAWING,  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  departments,  in- 
strumental and  free-hand,  the  former  being  principally  employed  in  the 
mechanical,  engineering,  and  architectural  branches  of  industry;  the  latter, 
by  artists,  designers,  and  others.  The  two  divisions  are  some- 
Divisions.  |jjj-,gg  j-eferred  to  as  scientific  and  artistic,  becarse  the  subjects 
coming  under  the  first  group,  are  based  on  scientific  principles,  and  the 
results  obtained  are  capable  of  demonstration  by  geometry;  whilst  free- 
hand work,  either  in  imitation  or  original  design,  employs  the  perceptive 
rather  than  the  reasoning  faculties,  and  its  results  have  to  be  judged 
by  the  standard  of  taste,  in  all  the  features  which  do  not  involve  a  question 
of  fact. 

Instrumental  Draicing.  —  The  group  of  subjects  which  come  under 
this  division  may  be  classified  as  elementary  or  ajyj^Iied;  the  first  teaching 
methods  of  obtaining  accuracy  of  form,  and  its  appearance  under  given 
conditions;  the  second  applying  this  power  of  drawing  to  practical  pur- 
poses, in  the  arts  of  i^lanning,  construction,  and  design.  —  The  elemeniarri 
subjects  are:  (1)  plane  geometrical  drawing;  (2)  projection  of 
Subjects.  g(^jjjg^  ^^j  radial  or  perspective,  (bj  parallel  or  orthographic; 
(3)  projection  of  shadows,  (a)  radial  or  perspective,  (hj  parallel  or  ortho- 
graphic and  isometric.  —  The  applied  subjects  are:  (1)  architectural 
drawing  and  building  construction;  (2)  machine  drawing,  construction, 
and  design;  civil  and  military  engineering;  (3)  surveying  and  topographical 
drawing;  and  (4)  ship  draughting,  and  marine  architecture. —  The  elemen- 
tary subjects  teach  the  student  how  to  draw  the  forms  of  lines,  planes,  or 


92  DRAWING 

solids,  either  as  the  eye  sees  them  by  perspective,  or  as  they  actually  exist, 

by  orthographic  or  isometric  projection.     'J'he  forms  usually  employed 

iu  teaching,  are  regular  geometric  planes  and  solids,  conveying, 

Forms,     ^yy  the  instruction  given,  the  principles  of  representation  by 

lines,  on  planes  of  delineation,  when  the  objects  are  seen  in  space,  or  iu  a 

defined  position  in  relation  to  the  eye.     The  study  of  the  elements  of 

instrumental  drawing  is  necessary,  therefore,  because  by  it  we  learn  how 

to  draw,  as  a  science,  which  is  obviously  required  before  we  can  apply  it  to 

Element-  purposes  involving  a  knowledge  of  the  science.    The  elementary 

ary       branches  may  thus  be  considered  purely  educational,  whilst  the 

bi-anches.  advanced  or  applied  divisions  may  be  described  as  industrial.  — 

In  the  applied  subjects,  a  knowledge  of  plane  and  solid  geometry  prepares 

the  architectural  draughtsman  to  make  working  drawings  for  the  buUder, 

the  carpenter,  the  mason,  and  other  mechanics  employed  in  the 

-^^P/'f ,    erection  and  construction  of  buildings;  displaying,  by  geometrical 

su  jec  h.   (jj.j^^yj,^gg  niade  to  a  regular  scale,  the  true  forms  and  dimensions 

of  all  parts  of  the  fabric;  enabling  the  builder  to  calculate  exactly  the 

quantity  of  materials  required  in  its   construction,  and  each  artisan  to 

prepare  his  share  of  the  work,  so  that  it  shall  truly  fit  its  place.     The 

science  of  projection  and  perspective  is  the  basis  of  the  language  by  which 

the  architect  expresses  his  design  for  the  whole  structure,  displaying  his 

arrangement  of  the  plan,  his  design  for  the  elevation,  the  true  form  of  the 

building  in  its  several  aspects,  and  the  appearance  of  the  whole  by  means 

of  a  perspective  view.  —  Again,  in  mechanical  engineering,  the  designer 

Median-  ^f  a  machine  nmst   be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  projection 

ical  eiirjin-as  a  science,  before  he  can  express  on  jtujier  his  devices  for 

eerinrj.     securing  the  spe^d  and  power  required  for  his  i)urpose.  AVorking 

drawings  have  then  to  be  made  of  the  several  parts  and  details,  to  furnish 

accurate  information  to  the  model  maker,  by  which  he  may  make  each 

part  of  the  machine  in  wood,  to  the  moulder  w^ho  has  to  cast  it  in  metal, 

and  for  the  guidance  of  the  finisher  and  fitter  who  coin])lete  the  work  and 

erect  the  machine.     So,  also,  in  surveying  and  topographical  drawing,  the 

actual  features  of  a  country  or  an  estate  are  ascertained  through 

buneying,  ^|^g  application  of  plane  and  solid  geometry,  and  reduced  from 

^'       the  natural  size  to  a  plan  which  is,  in  all  respects,  like  the  true 

plan  of  the  original,  although  on  a  different  scale.     \iy  the  use  of  such 

scale  drawings,  railways  are  planned  and  executed,  cities  and  towns  are 

laid  out;  and,  by  civil  and  military  engineers,  who  employ  the  same  means 

of   delineating   their  work,  cities   are   drained,    supplied  with  water,  or 

fortified  and  protected,  bridges  are  built  to  span  the  river,  and  piers  made 

to  encroach  upon  the  sea,  tunnels  made  to  cut  through  hills  and  mountains, 

and  embankments  and  viaducts  to  fill  the  inequalities  of  valleys.  —  The 

marine  engineer  or  naval  constructor  is  equally  dependent  upon 

-'^('''''' ''""'■  his  knowledge  of  projection,  in  laying  out  the  lines  of  his  ship 

or  boat,  iu  displaying  its  capacity  for  freight,  and  modeling  its 

shape  for  speed.     All  these  features  of  his  design  are  expressed  by  means 

of  drawings,  which  are  the  application  of  plane  and  solid  geometry  to  a 

special  industrial  purpose.  It  will  be  evident,  therefore,  that  the  constructive 

arts,  which  bear  .so  important  a  relation  to  modern  civilization,  and  employ 

so  vast  a  number  of  persons,  are  all  dependent  upon  drawing  for  the 


DRAWING  93 

initiation  of  their  schemes.     At  the  foundation  of  successful  work,  in  any 

and  all  of  their  departments,  lies  a  knowledge  of  elementary  drawing, 

which,   regarded  as  a  language,  is  of  such  a  character,  that  it  may  be 

etficiently  taught  in   the    elementary    schools   by   the   regular    teachers 

employed    to    give    instruction    in    general    subjects,    as    soon    as    this 

practically  useful  subject  forms  a  part  of  all  normal-school  education.  Pure 

Applica-  geometry  may  be  considered  the  study  of  all  these  sciences  in 

tion  of    the  abstract,  and  this  is  successfully  pursued  in  the  schools  and 

geometry,  colleges;  scientific  or  instrumental  drawing,  under  the  headings 

called  elementary  subjects,  would  be  the  concrete  application  of  geometry 

to  the  needs  of  practical  education,  to  be  applied  at  a  future  time  to 

actual  industry. 

Free-Hand  Drawing.  —  As  the  name  implies,  this  kind  of  drawing  is 
the  expression,  by  the  unassisted  hand,  of  what  the  eye  perceives,  or  the 
mind,  or  imagination,  conceives.     Its  results,  therefore,  are  de- 
What  it  is.  pg,-, jgj^^  upon  the  truthfulness  of  observation  or  power  of  con- 
ception possessed  by  the  draughtsman,  and,  in  some  measure,  upon  his 
manipulative  skill  as  a  workman.     As  a  rule,  however,  the  power  of  draw- 
ing, or  expression,  is  equal  to  the  perceptive  power,  and  imperfect  or  faulty 
work  proceeds  generally  from  a  lack  of  clear  understanding  of  the  subject 
rather  than  want  of  hand  skill.  —  As  in  instrumental  drawing,  free-hand 
drawing  consists  of  two  groups  of  subjects,  —  elementary  and 
Divisions,  appjig^j^  tjie  fij-gt  being  educational,  and  the  second,  industrial 
or  professional.     In  the  elementary  division,  are  all  those  branches  of  study 
or  exercises  which  develop  the  imitative  faculties,  embracing  all  kinds  of 
Element-   copying  from  flat  examples  or  round  objects,  including  also  the 
ary,  and  subjects  of  geometrical  drawing  and  perspective,  by  which  alone 
applied,    the  truthfulness  of  expressed  form  can  be  tested.     In  applied 
drawing,  the  language  of  form  is  employed  to  embody  new  ideas,  either  as 
original  designs  for  industrial  art  and  manufactures,  or  to  express  the  ideal 
of  fine  art,  the  work  of  the  imagination.     It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
both  scientific  and  artistic  drawing,  by  instruments  or  by  the  free  hand, 
have  a  common  characteristic;  they  both  involve  a  knowledge  of, and  skill 
in,  drawing  as  a  language,  before  the  language  can  by  employed 
Drawing  foj.  original  purposes.      To  continue  the  analogy,  and  regarding 
as  a      drawing  as  the  language   of  form,  its  alphabet  consists  of  two 
anguag  .  |g|.^gj.g  "^jjg  straight  line  and  the  curve.     .Simple  combinations  of 
these,  by  elementary  practice,  produce,  as  it  were,  words  of  one  syllable; 
the  grouping  of  several  objects  in  a  drawing,  may  be  described  as  a  sentence; 
and  an  original  design  is  the  same  as  a  composition  or  essay  on  a  given 
theme.     The  artist  uses  the  expression  "  out  of  drawing"  in  precisely  the 
same  sense  as  a  scholar  employs  the  term  "  ungrammatical",  and  (other 
terms  being  substituted)  the  criticism  which  has  been  made  on  a  poem  or 
a  work  of  fiction,  might  apply  exactly  to  a  historical  picture  or  an  ideal 
figure,  possessing  similar  characteristics.     To  ensure  success  in 
of'sM^^^T  teaching  the  subject  in  the  public  schools,  the  following  conditions 
/  success.  ^^^  necessary :   (1)  Only  those  elementary  branches  should  be 
taught  which  are  educational  in  their  influence,  and  the  knowledge  conveyed 
by  them  of  general  use  (such  as  have  been  described  as  being  at  the  foun- 
dation of  all  constructive  industry) .  (2)  Instruction  in  drawing  should  begin 


94  DRILL  —  DULL  SCHOLARS 

■with  school  life,  and/ end  only  when  school,  college,  or  university  education 
is  completed.  (3)  At  the  basis  of  all  instruction  is  geometrical  drawing, 
which  illustrates  the  facts  of  regular  forms;  and  perspective,  which 
determines  the  appearance  of  those  facts.  (4)  Original  design,  either 
elementary  or  applied,  sJiould  form  a  part  of  the  regular  exercises  required 
from  pupils,  alternating  with  other  exercises,  such  as  drawing  from  memory, 
and  dictation,  in  order  to  give  variety  to  the  study,  (f))  'i"he  principles  of 
drawing,  and  of  shades  and  shadows,  should  first  be  taught  from  regular 
forms,  and  with  scientific  method  and  accuracy,  before  the  pupils  are 
allowed  to  draw  and  shade  irregular  forms,  with  no  guide  but  their  own 
observation.  All  practice  should  jiroceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex, 
from  the  regular  to  the  irregular,  from  the  fact  to  its  appearance. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  a  course  of  i7ist7-uction  ior  elementarj 
schools : 

1st  yea?:  —  The  names  of  geometric  forms  and  lines;  drawing  straight  lines  and 
their  combinalions  into  simple  forms;  also,  the  same  forms  from  memory.  (All 
work  on  the  slate.) 

2d  year.  —  Dictation  and  memory  drawing  of  geometric  patterns;  simple 
designs  composed  of  straight  lines  and  simple  curves.     (Slate  work.) 

3d  year.  —  Practice  on  i)aper  of  what  has  been  previously  learned;  also  in  draw- 
ing, with  readiness,  from  memory  and  dictation,  forms  previously  drawn  from  copy. 
Designing  new  combinations  from  copies. 

■itii  year.  —  Free-hand  outline  de.-^ign,  geometrical  drawing,  model  drawing  of 
both  curved  forms  and  objects  bounded  by  right  lines, 

5th  year.  —  Drawing  ornaments  and  objects  of  historical  character,  as  Egyptian 
lotus  forms,  Greek  vases,  etc.;  the  same  to  be  drawn  also  from  memory;  geo- 
metrical drawing  of  a  more  advanced  character. 

C//i,  7th,  and  fith  years.  —  Free-hand  drawing  and  design,  geometrical  drawing, 
model  drawing  (from  the  solid  object),  and  free-hand  perspective  (developing  ideas 
in  jireparation  for  advanced  work),  dictation  and  memory  drawing;  design  with 
lialC-tint  back  grounds.  Hot;ini<al  names  and  forms.  Colors  and  tne  iirst  principles 
of  their  harmony.    See  CyeUipa-dia  of  Kducalinn. 

DRILL,  a  term  used  in  education,  particularly  in  school  instruction, 
to  denote  the  strict  routine  of  exercises  required  eitiier  to  train  pupils  to  the 
ready  performance  of  mental  or  physical  processes,  or  to  inq^ress  upon 
their  memory  those  arbitrary  associations  of  facts  or  words  which  are  re- 
quired in  many  subjects  of  study.  Thus,  a  certain  amount  of  drill  is 
required  in  teaching  the  arithmetical  tables,  the  paradigms  and  rules  of 
grammar,  the  spelling  of  w^ords,  and  those  facts  of  geography  that  pertain 
to  the  location  of  places  (memorizing  maps).  Drill  requires  definite  exer- 
cises and  regular  practice  in  them,  continued  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  in 
order  to  impart  a  kind  of  automatic  force  to  the  recollection.  Doth  mind 
and  body,  by  repetition,  acquire  fixed  habitudes,  by  means  of  which  thought 
and  muscular  action  may  be  accommodated  to  the  performance  of  acts 
wliich  at  first  might  have  seemed  inqwssible.  This  is  the  foundation 
[irinciple  of  drill. 

DULL  SCHOLARS,  or  Dullards,  a  class  of  pupils  found  in  every 
scliool  and  class,  whose  perceptions  are  deficient  in  ra])idity,  and  whose 
mental  powers  are  sluggish.  .Such  pupils  need  especially  the  spur  of  en- 
couragement, and  .should  never  be  subjected  to  blame  or  derision  on  account 
of  their  slowness.  Many  teachers  often  greatly  err  in  dealing  with  this 
class  of  pupils,  applying  to  them  such  epithets  as  blockhead,  dolt,  numb- 
skull, simpleton,  dunce,  etc.    They  are,  moreover,  sometimes  neglected  by 


EAR  95 

the  teacher,  who  naturally  prefers  to  give  attention  to  those  bright,  preco- 
cious pupUs  who  need  but  little  instruction.  'J'he  best  powers  of  the 
teacher,  however,  are  displayed  in  developing  the  latent  capacities  of  these 
dull  scholars;  and  very  often  it  has  been  found  that  those  who  bore  the 
character  of  dullness  in  school  have  risen  to  great  eminence  in  after  life. 
The  great  English  poet  and  novelist.  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  the  illustrious 
German  chemist  Liebig  are  often  mentioned  as  examples  of  this  fact. 

EAR,  Cultivation  of  the.     Eecent    physiological  researches  appear 
to  leave  but  little  reason  to  doubt  that,  at  birth  and  for  months  afterward, 

the  organs  of  the  special  senses  exist  in  only  a  rudimentary 
When  to  form,  and  that  they  owe  their  gradual  development  entirely  to 
meticed    *^®  external    influences    exerted    upon    them   by  nature   and 

society.  It  is,  therefore,  not  only  probable,  but  experimentally 
demonstrable,  that  the  education  of  the  senses  is  more  or  less  eflBcient 
according  to  the  time  at  which  it  begins  after  birth.  In  the  light  of 
modern  experience,  it  is  considered  by  some  extremely  doubtful  whether 
there  is  really  any  case  of  actual  congenital  blindness  or  deafness.  The 
tendency  to  these  defects,  doubtless,  often  exists  as  an  hereditary  imper- 
fection, but  is  scarcely  ever  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  incurable,  if 
discovered  and  treated  properly  soon  after  birth.  Hence,  except  when  an 
organic  malformation  exists,  it  follows  that  a  systematic  and  judicious 
training  of  the  senses,  from  the  earliest  infancy,  may  remedy  most,  if  not 
all,  cases  of  such  defects  as  color-blindness,  weakness  of  sight  and  hearing, 
etc.  Such  indeed  is  the  conclusion  derived  from  the  experience  gained 
in  infant  asylums,  kindergartens,  and  intelligent  families.  I'his  is  an 
important  fact,  since  it  serves  to    correct  the  notion,  so  generally  enter- 

tained,  that  good  speakers  and  singers  must  be  born  such,  and 
ear  culture  *^^*^  there  are  but  few  persons  thus  naturally  endowed.  There 
'  is,  without  doubt,  considerable  diversity  in  the  sensuous  endow- 
ments of  different  individuals;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  impossible  to 
fix  a  limit  to  the  improvement  of  which  every  organ  of  sense  is  susceptible 
by  continuous  and  proper  education,  and  j)articularly  by  a  cultivation 
carried  on  through  several  successive  generations.  As  regards  the  ear, 
this  may  be  considered  as  historically  established;  since,  three  centuries 
ago,  there  were  but  an  exceptionally  few  persons  who  showed  any  ability  to 
appreciate,  and  a  still  smaller  number  who  were  able  to  reproduce,  musical 
melody  and  harmony.  The  progress  of  musical  art  among  modern  civilized 
nations,  and  particularly  the  diffusion  of  musical  taste  among  the  people, 
are  striking  illustrations  of  ear  culture,  since  this  progress  could  not  be 
effected  without  an  organic  as  well  as  an  esthetic  improvement. 

The  sense  of  hearing  is  the  earliest  to  be  developed  in  infancy,  and,  at 
the  approach  of  death,  seems  to  be  the  last  to  be  extinguished;  it  is  also 

the  last  to  be  overcome  by  sleep,  and  the  first  to  be  aroused  on 
hTarinq    awakening.      In  reaching  objects  at  a  distance,   its  power  is 

next  to  that  of  sight.  In  the  earliest  stages  of  intellectual 
development,  the  sense  of  hearing  performs  a  most  important  office,  since 
language,  the  most  efficient  means  of  all  education,  depends  upon  its 
exercise.  Moral  education,  no  doubt,  also  begins  with  the  genial  accents 
of  the  maternal  voice,  both  in  speech  and  song,  as  heard  by  the  infant;  so 
that  even  the  lullabies  which  soothe  it  to  slumber  constitute  an  agency  in 


96  EDUCATION 

its  development.  While,  therefore,  loud  and  explosive  noises  may  injure 
the  physical  organization  of  the  ear  of  a  child,  harsh  and  angry  tones 
will  affect  injuriously  the  development  of  its  affections  and  sentiments. 
All  disagreeable  .sensuous  impressions  are  deeper  and  more  durable  than 
Practical  those  of  an  opposite  character;  and,  hence  when  often  repeated, 
sugjes-  they  tend  to  destroy  the  capacity  of  the  ear  for  the  appreciation 
tiuns.  of  beautiful  sounds.  Otherwise,  variety  of  sound  is  not  detri- 
mental to  the  infant's  ear,  but  on  the  contrary,  beneficial,  especially  when 
the  source  of  each  sound  is,  at  the  same  time,  presented  to  the  sight,  or 
touch,  or  both  these  senses.  From  the  time  the  infant  begins  to  understand 
simple  language,  —  usually  after  the  fourth  mouth,  especially  if  the  words 
are  accompanied  with  mimicry  or  gesticulation,  care  should  be  taken  to 
articulate  distinctly.  In  families  in  which  there  is  a  negligence  in  this 
respect,  it  will  be  found  that  the  children  either  never,  or  with  very  great 
difficulty,  acquire  a  distinct  articulation.  It  is  a  great  error,  quite  common 
in  some  families  and  communities,  to  repress  the  natural  vociferations  of 
children,  and  to  insist  on  the  constant  use  of  low  tones  in  speech.  Nature 
dictates  a  great  deal  of  crying,  shouting,  etc.,  in  order  that  the  lungs  and 
vocal  organs  may  be  fully  developed;  but,  of  course,  all  excess  should  be 
restrained,  since  the  habit  of  yelling  and  shouting  in  the  open  air  will  not 
only  injure  the  delicate  organs  of  the  voice,  but  will  have  a  bad  effect  upon 
the  moral  development  of  the  child,  besides  incapacitating  him  for  the 
perception  and  appreciation  of  those  delicate  distinctions  of  sound  upon 
which  musical  harmony  and  melody  depend.  (See  Senses,  Education  of.) 
EDUCATION'  (Lat.  ecbicnlio),  a  general  and  comprehensive  term, 
including  in  its  signification  every  thing  that  pertains  to  the  brinering  up 
.  of  children,  and  the  operation  of  influences  and  agencies  do.signed 
Befin^ion.  ^^  stimulate  and  direct  the  development  of  the  faculties  of  youth 
by  training  and  instruction,  and  thus  to  control  the  formation  of  their 
character.  Hence,  education  has  been  divided  into  several  departments, 
according  to  the  class  of  faculties  to  the  development  and  improvement  of 
which  it  is  directed,  including  (1)  Physical  Edm-ation  (q.  v.), 
tion  ^^  *^®  education  of  the  bodily  powers;  (2)  Int^Uechtnl  Ediicn- 
iion  (q.  v.),  that  of  the  mind  or  intellect;  (3)  3Ioral  Ednca/ion 
(q.  v.),  —  of  the  propensities,  sentiments,  will,  and  conscience;  (4)  EatJipfic 
Education,  —  of  the  taste,  musical,  artistic,  or  literary,  that  is,  comprehend- 
ing the  sphere  of  the  imagination  (see  Esthetic  Ci-lture);  and  (?>)  Re- 
ligious or  Spiritual  Education,  —  of  the  religious  sentiments,  the  spiritual 
instincts;  that  is,  those  which  concern  the  soul  as  an  immortal  essence,  and 
its  relations  to  the  Infinite  Spirit.     (See  Religious  Education.) 

Education  is  also  distinguished  into  home  or  domestic  education,  and 
public  or  common-school  e(Z«ca//o»,  or,  considered  as  a  means  for  the  general 
enlightenment  of  the  people,  popular  education;  also  into p7-ivate  education, 
that  is,  supported  by  private  funds,  and  national  education,  —  provided 
for  ])y  the  state. 

School  education,  generally  called  instrnction ,  on  account  of  the  more 

limited  character  of  its  scope  and  the  sphere  of  its  operations,  is  distin- 

guished,  according   to  its  grade,  into  (1)  primary  instruction, 

e^ccUion   *^^^*'  ^^'  ^^^'^  instruction  given  in  elementary  schools  (such  as  the 

common  schools, —  the  primary  schools  of  cities  representing  only 


EDUCATION  97 

a  lower  subdivision  of  primary  instruction);  (2)  secondary  instruction, — 
as  given  in  academies  and  high  schools  (middle  schools);  (3)  superior  in- 
struction,—  as  given  in  colleges  and  universities;  (4)  special  instruction, — 
as  of  the  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  imbecile;  (5)  prof essionnl  and 
technical  instruction,  —  as  in  art  schools,  law  schools,  medical  schools, 
military  schools,  theological  seminaries,  schools  of  architecture,  etc. 

Education  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  instruction,  the  latter 
being  only  a  subordinate  part  of  the  great  schemes  of  controlling  and 
Instruc-  guiding  the  development  of  a  human  being.  To  this  department 
lion.    ^  of  education  the  term  didactics  (from  the  Greek  word  d^ddcaeiv, 
to  teach)  is  often  applied.     (See  Didactics  and  Ixstructio.n.)     Instruction 
is  addressed  to  the  intellect  or  understanding;   while  education  compre- 
hends the  whole  nature  of  man  and  the  various  agencies  by  means  of 
which,  in  its  formative  state,  it  may  be  effected.     Its  primary  object  is  to 
form  the  character  either  by  stimulating  its  development  in  the  normal 
direction,  or  correcting  tendencies  to  morbid  growth.     In  respect  to  the 
scientific  principles  by  which  its  practical  operations  should  be  guided, 
education  is  a  science;  in  the  relation  to  the  proper  mode  of  performing 
those  operations  so  as  to  render  them  as  effective  as  possible,  it  is  an  art. 
The  science  of  education  is  a  very  complex  one,  inasmuch  as  its  prin- 
ciples must  be  drawn  from  many  different  departments  of  science;  super- 
Snience  of  ^^^^^.^  which,  as  its  own   peculiar  sphere   of  investigation, 
'education.  *^^^^  ^^  ^^^  g^^at  body  of  truths  which  concern  the  growth  and 
development  of  mind  and  body,  and  which  especially  constitute 
trhe  theory  of  education,  or  pedagogics,  as  sometimes  called.  A  distinction 
is  now  plainly  drawn  in  the  minds  of  professional  educationists  between 
the  old  and  the  7iew  education,  the  former  referring  to  the  system 
ai'd  new  °^  verbal  memorizing,  of  which  there  are  so  many  relics  at  the 
education,  present  time;  and  the  latter,  to  the  development  system  {q.   v.), 
by  which  a  constant  appeal  is  made  to  the  intelligence  of  the 
child,  in  the  exercise  of  its  observing  and  conceptive  faculties.     Hence  the 
term  New  Education  is  often  applied  to  Froebels  kindergarten.  A  recent 
writer  remarks  :  — "  The  old  education  was  painful  and  repulsive:  the  new 
education  inspires  voluntary  and  glad  effort.     Adaptation  and  interest  are 
cardinal.      The  old  education  consisted  largely  of  unmeaning  task -work, 
which  tended  to  discourage  and  repress.     The  new  education  leads  the 
pupil  to  discover  and  apply,  and  inspires  boundless  enthusiasm".   Bald- 
win, Art  of.  School  Management  (1881). 

EDUCATION,  Theory  of.     The  word  education  is  derived  from 
the  Latin  verb  educo  which  is  properly  used  to  designate  the  sustenance 
and  care  bestowed  by  a  nurse  on  a  child;  and  it  is,  no  doubt, 
mid'amof  ^^^Dnected  etymologically  with  the  Latin  verb  edilco,  to  lead 
education.  '^.^^^  ^^^  ^*  never  has  this  literal  sense,  and  it  is  extremely  un- 
likely that  the  Romans  connected  the  idea  of  drawing  out  with 
that  of  educatio.     In  order  to  get  a  true  idea  of  education,  we  must  look 
at  the  circumstances  of  the  case.     We  proceed  by  way  of  analogy.    We 
Illustra-    know  in  regard  to  the  seed  of  a  plant  that  it  contains  a  peculiar 
^  tion.      and   special   power   within   it.     Place    it  in   the    proper  soil, 
with  the  proper  temperature,    and  it   will  burst  forth  into  active  life. 
It  win  gather  from  earth  and  air  the  means  of  support  and  increase.     It 


98  EDUCATION 

will  fashion  the  elements  which  it  lays  hold  of  into  a  definite  shape,  and  it 
•will  pass  through  various  stages  of  progress  until  it  withers  away,  leaving, 
however,  behind  it  the  means  of  continuing  the  species.  AN'ithiu  certain 
limits,  the  plant  has  a  definite  form  of  its  own,  and  its  mode  of  lite  is  also 
luiit'orm;  and,  within  these  limits,  there  lies  a  perfect  form  and  a  perfect 
life  for  the  plant.  It  may  not  be  easy  to  say  what  is  that  perfect  form  and 
perfect  life,  but  it  is  plain  to  every  observer,  that  it,  as  it  were,  strives  after 
an  ideal  form  and  an  ideal  progress,  to  which  it  approximates  more  or  less 
closely.  Man  is  like  the  plant.  The  living  power  within  him  strives  to 
attain  a  particular  form,  and  to  go  through  a  particular  progress,  and  it 
continually  strives  to  attain  an  ideal  of  these,  within  certain  limits.  The 
difference  between  the  plant  and  the  man  is,  that  the  limits  of  his  condition 
and  progress  are  much  wider,  and  that  he  can  consciously  form  an  ideal 
for  himself,  and  strive  after  it.  Now  edtication,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  the 
deliberate  effort  on  the  part  of  one  conscious  being  to  clear  the  way  so  as 
to  enable  another  to  attain  this  perfect  condition  of  life  and  this  normal 
progress.  It  is  assumed  that  the  man  naturally  strives  after  perfection. 
It  is  assumed  that  he  must  move  in  some  direction,  whether  forward,  or 
zigzag,  or  backward;  and  the  educator  endeavors  to  keep  the  movement  in 
the  right  direction. 

The  word  edncAition  is  used  in  a  variety  of  senses,  connected  but  not 
always  compatible  with  the  true  idea.    Thus  man  is  viewed  as  being,  in  his 

earliest   stage,  a   kind  of   compressed  mass  of  faculties,  and 

Various    elucation  is  the  drawing  out  of  these  facidties.     Again,  every 

'"^^^w(^d       thing  that  acts  on  man's  nature  is  sometimes  said  to  be  educative, 

whether  the  result  is  beneficial  or  not.  Other  instances  could 
be  adduced  of  the  use  of  the  word  in  the  vaguest  manner;  but  by  stating 
the  true  idea  we  oppose  ourselves  to  the  vague  uses  of  the  word.  It  is 
enough,  therefore,  to  state  first  that  man  must  be  viewed,  not  as  passive 
but  as  active,  not  as  being  drawn  out,  but  as  striving  to  act,  and  tiiat  no 
act  is  truly  educative  which  does  not  help  him  to  strive  after  actions  that 
are  becoming  to  his  nature,  or,  to  express  it  objectively,  to  strive  after 
what  is  good,  beautiful,  or  true. 

But,  in  thus  stating  the  work  of  education  in  a  general  proposition,  we 
have  done  very  little  toward  explaining  its  true  nature.     PMucation  sets 

before  it  an  ideal,  flow  are  we  to  form  anything  like  an 
The  ideal,  adequate  conception  of  this  ideal?  Only  by  a  minute  and 
careful  study  of  human  nature;  and,  therefore,  every  educator  must 
necessarily  devote  a  great  deal  of  his  attention  to  the  phenomena  of  body 
and  mind,  and  to  man,  the  combination  of  both,  'i'he  ideal  is  a  unity, 
but  it  is  a  composite  unity,  made  up  of  the  perfect  accomplishment  of 
endless  detailed  actions,  and  we  must,  therefore,  examine  all  the  details 
before  we  can  attain  to  a  clear  notion  of  the  whole. 

The  subject  may  be  viewed  in  another  light.     Every  portion  of  man  is 

made  or  preformed  for  a  special  function  or  functions,     'i'hus  the  eyes  are 

,        made  for  seeing,  the  hands  for  grasping,  the  skin  for  touch.   For 

.  what  is  the  whole  body  made?     For  what  is  man,  body  and 

soul,  made?  It  is  the  work  of  the  educator  to  help  him  whom 
he  educates  to  discharge  the  functions  for  which,  as  man,  he  has  been 
made  or  preformed.    Accordingly,  most  of  the  definitions  of  education 


EDUCATION  00 

which  have  been  given,  have  been  based  on  the  answer  to  the  question, 
■what  is  the  chief  end  —  the  sumrmnn  bonum  —  the  destiny  of  man  ?  This 
was  a  question  which  occupied  the  attention  of  the  ancients  much,  and 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  has  gathered  together  a  large  number  of  the  answers 
which  ancient  philosophers  gave  to  the  inquiry.  These  are  interesting  to 
the  educator,  because  they  suggest  different  points  of  view  from  which  to 
look  at  the  problem.  In  more  modern  times,  the  form  which  the  answer 
has  most  frequently  taken  is  the  statement  that  it  is  the  work  of  education 
to  produce, as  far  as  it  can,  an  equable  and  harmonious  development  of  all 
the  powers  of  man.  Herbart  and  his  school  object  to  this  way  of 
Aim  expressing  the  aim  of  education.  The  terra  powers  is  apt  to 
lo^Herbart  ^^^l^^'^-  There  are  no  separate  and  special  faculties  in  man's 
'  mind.  All  the  best  psychologists  admit  that  these  faculties  are 
fictions;  and  therefore,  the  aim  of  education  nmst  be  deiiued  apart  from 
these.  Herbart  himself  defined  the  aim  of  education  to  be  morality;  but 
he  used  the  word  in  a  truly  philosophical  sense,  in  which  it  is  not  under- 
stood by  the  masses,  and,  therefore,  he  preferred  to  state  the  object  of 
education  to  be,  to  produce  a  well-balanced  many-sidedness  of  interest. 
The  emphasis  laid  on  interest  has  been  productive  of  much  rich  fruit  in 
educational  investigation  and  experience;  but, practically,  Herbart 's  defini- 
tion comes  to  the  same  as  the  other.  Man  is  viewed  as  destined  to  a  series 
of  activities  closely  connected  the  one  with  the  other.  These  activities  may 
be  in  harmony  Avith  his  nature,  or  his  ideal  nature,  as  we  may  call  it,  or 
they  may  be  more  or  less  aberrations  from  it.  The  business  of  the  educator 
is  to  prevent  the  aberrations,  and  to  help  those  activities  which  are  in 
harmony.  Those  activities  which  are  in  harmony  find  their  sphere  in 
nature,  in  man,  in  God.  It  is  important  that  all  these  activities  come  into 
play.  Man  does  not  pursue  his  ideal  course,  if  they  do  not  come  into  play. 
He  must  be  fully  developed.  But  if  his  activity  comes  into  play  on  thi  se 
subjects  according  to  the  right  method,  his  interest  in  them  is  awakened 
and  becomes  stronger  and  stronger;  for  all  pleasure  is  the  accompaniment 
of  the  vigorous  discharge  of  some  function,  and  all  pain  is  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  weak  discharge  or  hindrance  of  some  function.  If  the  organ 
which  discharges  the  function  is  exercised  too  jDowerfully,  as  may  be  the 
case  with  our  bodily  powers  and  lower  mental  energies,  there  is  first  intense 
pleasure;  but  the  over-tension  impairs  the  healthiness  of  the  organ  temp- 
orarily, or  it  may  be  permanently,  and  then  the  impaired  activity  is  followed 
by  pain.  And  the  pleasure  that  may  arise,  may  arise  from  the  exercise  of 
what  we  call  the  lovt'er  fitnctions,  when  the  higher  are  neglected.  Thus  the 
lazy  man  desires  true  pleasure,  as  far  as  it  goes,  irom  the  vigorous  exercise  of 
his  vital  or  vegetative  powers.  But,  whatever  pleasure  does  exist,  exists 
from  the  efficient  discharge  of  function,  or  in  other  Avords  from  healthy 
activities  of  body  or  of  mind.  This  pleasure  may  not  be  consciously  before 
the  mind,  as  in  the  highest  intellectual  operations  when  the  student  does 
not  feel  how  intense  has  been  his  enjoyment,  until  the  enjoyment  is  over. 
This  accompaniment  of  all  out  healthy  actions  is  cumulative.  It  grows  in 
degree,  in  proportion  as  the  actions  are  repeated  in  a  healthy  or  proper 
manner.  And,  hence,  our  interest  increases  with  the  healthy  repetition  of 
the  activities  on  the  objects.  Herbart's  definition  becomes,  therefore, 
nearly  synonymous  with  the  other,  but  directs  the  attention  to  the  external 


100  EDUCATION 

side  of  man's  activity,  to  the  objects  on  which  the  mind  works.  Both  sides 
must  be  carefully  considered  by  the  educator;  for,  in  the  activity  of  man, 
they  are  invariably  conjoined.  The  distinction  between/or»ia/  and  material 
in  education  has  to  be  made  with  great  caution;  and  it  has  always  to  be 
remembered  that  form  is  impossible  without  matter,  and  matter  impossible 
without  form,  that  while  there  can  be  no  right  activity,  if  the  mind  does 
not  act  in  a  right  manner,  it  is  equally  true  that  there  can  be  no  right 
activity,  if  there  is  not  a  right  object  for  the  mind  to  act  upon. 

After  having  thus  generally  discussed  the  aim  of  education,  we  should 
now  enter  minutely  into  particulars,  for  the  general  is  of  slight  use  with- 
Particu-  out  the  particular;  but  this  would  be  to  write  a  treatise  on  the 
lars.  laws  of  the  activity  of  the  human  mind,  and  the  modes  to  be 
adojjted  by  men  to  direct  these  activities  aright  in  the  young.  A\''e  must, 
therefore,  confine  ourselves  to  hints  which  may  suggest  to  the  reader  the 
subjects  which  deserve  his  careful  and  minute  examination. 

A  child  gazes  at  an  apple  on  a  tree.     AMiat  are  the  operations  of  the 
child's  mind  V     First,  we  have  the  exercise  of  the  bodily  organ.     Then  the 

apple  produces  an  impression  on  the  chil(r.s  mind.     This  im- 
atioil  I     P"^*^^^!*^'^  '^^'6  call  a  sensation.    The  child  feels  something.     Some 

change  has  taken  place  within  him.  l^ut,  if  this  is  not  the  first 
impression  which  the  apple  has  made  on  the  child,  we  can  observe  that  the 
sensation  has  attained  in  its  complexity  to  three  phases  :  First,  the  child 
has  the  feeling  of  pleasure  in  seeing  the  apple;  second,  he  sees  that  there  ia 
an  object  before  him  which  he  calls  an  apple;  and,  third,  if,  on  a  previous 
occasion,  he  has  tasted  apples  and  enjoyed  them,  the  recollection  of  that 
enjoyment  comes  back,  a  desire  arises  within  him,  and  he  is  under  an  im- 
pulse to  make  an  exertion  to  obtain  the  apple.  In  this  one  instance,  we 
have  the  various  phases  of  man's  activities.  He  is,  first  of  all,  a  physical 
being;  then  he  is  capable  of  feeling,  —  has  an  emotional  nature;  then  he  is 
capable  of  perceiving,  —  has  an  intellectual  nature;  and,  finally,  he  is  capable 
of  desiring,  of  striving  after,  and,  thus,  has  a  practical  and  moral  nature. 
Though  we  speak  of  him  thus  as  if  he  had  four  natures,  he  really  possesses 
but  one.  All  the  distinctions,  except  perhaps  the  first,  are  distinctions 
made  by  the  mind,  but  the  facts  do  not  exist  separately.  The  emotional, 
intellectual,  and  volitional  are  blended  with  each  other  in  the  actual  human 
mind.  The  mind  cannot  exist  without  them.  'J'here  can  be  no  absolute 
separation  of  them,  since  they  stand  in  the  closest  relation  to  each  other. 
Yet  it  is  essential  to  separate  these  elements  in  our  discission  of  them,  for 
they  may  blend  with  each  other  in  different  degrees.  The  one  phase  may 
predominate  to  the  injury  of  the  others.  A  man  may  have  a  cle£ir  head, 
but  a  hard  heart  and  a  stubborn  will.  Another  may  be  too  emotional, 
ready  to  melt  before  the  slightest  distress,  and  yet  possessing  almost  no 
c  ipability  or  inclination  te  relieve  the  distress.  'I'he  true  aim  of  man  is  to 
bring  out  all  tiic  elements  in  harmonious  proportion,  and  the  work  of  the 
educator  is  to  help  each  child  to  accomplish  this  difficult  task  for  himself. 
The  aim  and  end  of  physical  education  is  to  produce  health,  not 
strength  in  particular  organs,  but  a  general  healthiness  of  all  the  organs. 

This  aiui  is  accomplished  by  a  careful  examination  into  the 

Physical  Y\atnve  of  the  human  body,  an  exposition  of  the  laws  of  health 

'  which  arise  from  this  study,  and  the  exhibition  of  the  reasons 


EDUCATION  101 

which  ought  to  lead  us  to  give  all  due  care  to  the  body.  Intellectual  educa- 
tion is  based  on  a  careful    investigation  into  the  laws  which   regulate 

the  gradual  progress  of  the  mind  from  its  earliest  weak  state  of 

education  ^^^^^  sensation  tiU  it  reaches  the  power  of  dealing  with  the  most 

'abstract  ideas.     But  when  we   come  to  the  education   of  the 

emotional  nature,  v/e  enter  upon  a  more  dilB cult  sphere  —  one  in  which 

the  educator  has   often  to  grope    in    darkness;    for    the   emotions    are 

not  directly  under  his  control,  and  the  movements  of  the  mind 
Education  j^  regard  to  them  are  hid  in  such  secrecy,  that  sometimes  an 
emolims    ii^fl^ence  which   seems  to  us  likely  to  produce   one  emotion, 

actually  produces  the  opposite;  as,  for  instance,  efforts  to  beget 
love  may  have  for  their  result  the  production  of  dislike.  We  can  here 
take  but  a  short  glance  at  this  important  subject. 

The  first  point  to  which  the  attention  of  the  educator  may  be  directed 

is  a  general  result  at  which  he  may  aim.     The  broadest  division  which  can 

.be  made  of  the  feelings  is  into  those  of  pleasure  and  those  of 

andpain   V^^^-    '^'^^  mind  assumes  a  particular  attitude  in  consequence  of 

its  experiences  of  these.  "We  shall  take  a  case.  A  child  per- 
forms a  mental  act.  He  does  it  successfully.  He  feels  pleasure.  He  per- 
forms another  successfully.  The  recollection  of  the  past  pleasure  unites 
with  the  present  feeling,  and  the  feeling  is  stronger.  Others  thus  blend 
until  the  child  has  a  permanent  state  of  feeling;  or,  as  we  may  call  it,  a 
mood.  He  looks  forward  with  hope;  he  expects  to  be  successful;  but  he 
may  fail.  A  failure  takes  place;  he  feels  pain.  The  feeling  of  pain  now 
acts  antagonistically  to  his  feeling  of  pleasure;  and,  if  these  painful  feelings 
recur,  the  one  set  strive  for  the  mastery  over  the  other;  and  the  result  will 
be,  that  the  mind  will  idtimately  be  in  a  bright  and  cheerful  mood,  or  in 
a  dark  and  gloomy  one;  it  will  either  be  full  of  hope  or  be  given  to  despair; 
or,  at  the  least,  have  a  tendency  to  go  in  the  one  direction  or  the  other. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  business  of  the  educator  to  produce 
Tfig  the  bright,  cheerful,  hopeful  mood.  This  is  the  natural  mood, 
natural  if  we  use  the  word  natural  as  expressive  of  the  ideal  after  which 
mood,  nature  strives.  This  mood  is  the  result  of  the  successful  dis- 
charge of  all  the  functions;  and  it  is  of  immense  consequence  for  the 
child  to  have  this  mood.  The  mind  communicates  its  tone  to  every  thing 
around  it;  and  so  the  cheerful  mind  sees  good  in  every  thing,  catches  the 
bright  side,  and  strengthens  all  the  powers;  for  the  cheerful  mind  becomes 
the  strong  mind.  Obstacles,  pain,  failure  are  sure  to  come;  but  the  cheer- 
ful mind  casts  them  all  aside,  rises  superior  to  them,  and,  after  temporary 
depression,  sees  again  with  the  same  clearness,  and  hopes  with  the  same 
1/  th   Z-    steadfastness.     The  methods  by  which  the  educator  can  help  to 

produce  this  state  of  mind  in  his  charge  are  various,  and  must 
all  be  used.  First  of  all,  he  must  himself  be  of  this  cheerful  and  liopeful 
mind.  There  is  no  direct  teaching  on  excitation  of  the  emotions;  but  they 
are  often  produced,  in  the  proper  circumstances,  by  what  we  may  call  in- 
fection. Love  begets  love;  we  catch  admiration  from  those  who  have  felt 
the  admiration  before  us;  and,  no  doubt,  the  sweet,  gentle,  loving  smiles  of 
a  mother  who  is  uniformly  kind  to  her  child,  have  a  powerful  influence  on 
his  whole  destiny,  a  more  powerful  influence  than  they  are  generally  be- 
lieved to  exert.     Secondly,  health  is  a  mighty  agent  in  the  earliest  stases 


102  EDUCATION 

of  life,  before  it  can  be  expected  that  the  mind  should  triumph  over  bodily 
evils;  and,  therefore,  special  care  should  be  taken  to  render  the  infant 
healthy.  And,  thirdly,  after  a  certain  stage  has  been  reached,  some  truths 
reached  by  the  intellect  can  come  powerfully  to  the  aid  of  the  emotional 
nature ;  such,  for  instance,  as  a  belief  that  the  arrangements  of  this  world  are 
in  favor  of  man,  that  the  amount  of  happiness  in  the  world  is  much  greater 
than  we  may  suppose,  that  God  is  working  all  things  to  wise  and  noble 
ends,  and  that  man's  destiny  is  for  virtue  and  love. 

When  we  pass  from  this  general  consideration  to  the  particular  feel- 
ings, we  find  ourselves  in  a  labyrintu.     A  feeling  is  a  phase  of  mind  which 
.  arises  from  the  consciousness  of  having  passed  from  one  state 

/"eeiinos  '  "^*°  another;  and,  accordingly,  no  mental  act  can  take  place 
without  a  feeling.  Hence,  we  have  feelings  connected  with  the 
body,  feelings  connected  with  the  intellectual  operations,  and  feelings  con- 
nected with  the  practical  and  moral  nature.  Or  we  miyht  speak  of  the 
feelings  according  to  the  objects  which  give  rise  to  them;  as  those  that 
arise  in  connection  with  nature,  with  one's  own  self,  with  man,  with  God. 
We  select  out  of  these,  two  classes  of  feelings  that  especially  desei've  the 
attention  of  the  educator.  The  first  class  deserve  attention  principally  be- 
cause they  are  in  danger  of  being  neglected,  owing  to  the  cluu-acter  of  the 
P^s^si^t  ^g*^-  '^he  educator  should  awaken  and  keep  alive  the 
Jayste)  y.  fg^,2i^gg  Qf  admiration  and  mystery.  A  child  naturally  wonders 
and  admires,  and  these  feelings  must  not  be  allowed  to  die  out.  Moreover, 
the  sense  of  mystery,  closely  connected  with  these,  will  be  a  source  of  great 
blessing  to  him.  The  practical  man  is  apt  to  look  on  all  things  as  definite 
and  fully  known;  but  the  fact  is,  that  nothing  is  completely  known.  AVe 
know  neither  the  beginning  nor  the  end  of  any  thing.  The  smallest  object 
and  the  largest  are  equally  invisible  to  us.  Our  knowledge  is  limited  by  a 
boundary  that  lies  far  within  the  infinitesimally  great  and  theinfinitesimally 
small;  and  so  all  knowledge  attained  points  to  an  infimite  region  the  depths 
of  which  we  have  not  sounded.  A  consciousness  of  tliis  is  closely  con- 
nected with  a  humble  spirit,  and  true  Imniility  generally  allies  itself  with 
love.  The  second  class  of  feelings  is  that  which  relates  to  the  beautiful. 
The  sense  of  the  beautiful  is  the  power  to  feel  the  loveliness  of 
beautiful,  synnnetry,  of  proportion,  of  harmony.  This  power  is  to  be 
acquired  only  by  the  exercise  of  it.  The  symmetry  and  loveliness 
exist  in  nature.  'J'hey  are  calculated  to  produce  an  effect  on  the  soul  of 
man,  but  the  soul  of  man  must  be  brought  into  contact  with  them,  before 
it  can  feel  them.  Therefore,  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  the  feeling  for 
the  beautiful,  the  one  es.sential  condition  is,  that  beautiful  objects  be  placed 
before  the  person  in  whom  the  sense  is  to  be  awakened  and  strengthened, 
and  that  they  be  placed  frequently  and  at  proper  intervals;  because  the 
sense  of  the  beautiful  is  awakened  only  by  slow  degrees,  and  it  expands, 
passing  from  the  external  and  simple  to  the  harmonies  which  prevail 
amidst  the  grandest  spheres  of  thought  and  intelligent  existences.  But 
it  can  be  brought  before  the  pupil  in  every  form  at  an  early  stage, 
in  beautiful  pictures,  in  beautiful  rooms,  in  beautiful  landscapes,  in  order, 
in  gentleness  of  tone,  in  noble  action,  and  in  many  other  ways,  so 
as  to  induce  within  himself  a  love  of  all  that  is  orderly,  harmonious,  and 
peaceful, 


EDUCATION  103 

Two  cautions  may  be  specially  urged  in  connection  with  the  cultivation 

of  the  feelings.     The  first  is,  that  it  is  possible  to  lender  a  human  being 

too  sensitive,  —  to  give  feeling  too  great  a  preponderance  in  the 

Cautions,  individuality  of  the  person  educated.  Such  a  person  becomes 
sentimental,  is  easily  moved  to  joy  or  tears,  is  sympathetic  in  the  highest 
degree,  but  the  sympathy  does  not  lead  to  action.  The  educator  has  to 
take  care  that  every  train  of  feeling  be  strengthened  and  guided  aright  by 
clear  and  well-reasoned  convictions,  and  be  followed  by  appropriate  action. 
The  second  danger  is,  that  the  feeling  of  self  may  become  so  strong  as  to 
harden  every  other.  Naturally,  every  one  bestows  a  great  deal  of  attention 
on  hunself,  and  tliere  is  a  tendency  to  feel  only  when  the  circumstances 
relate  to  one's  self.  Here,  i;gain,  what  has  to  be  done  is,  to  prevent  the 
mind's  being  occupied  too  much  with  self,  and  to  interest  it  in  the  thoughts 
and  circumstances  of  others.  Both  these  cautions  point  to  the  next 
division  of  the  sphere  of  education  —  that  of  the  will  or  of  the  practical 
powers.     'J'he  exercise  of  these   is  closely  connected  with  <he 

2he  wiU.  iu^giigct  and  the  feelings,  and  indeed  ordinarily  rtsults  from 
them.  Man  is  naturally  a  striving  or  desiiing  being.  He  is  a  fore  .  and 
by  a  force  we  mean  something  that  strives  to  exert  itself.  Accordingly 
man's  first  act  is  an  effort.  And  the  powers  which  he  at  any  time  possesses 
strive  for  spheres  of  action.  But  these  spheres  are  in  the  main  determined 
by  the  results  of  the  action  of  his  intellect  and  the  motive  power  of  the 
feelings.  A  child  does  something  which  gives  him  jjleasure.  He  has 
finished  the  action.  He  turns  to  something  else.  What  remains  of  the 
previous  action?  A  recollection  of  something  pleasant;  but  the  recollection 
of  something  that  is  pleasant  excites  the  desire  to  enjoy  it  again.  Thus 
arise  desires  in  the  mind;  and  as  these  desires  arise  again  and  again  in 
connection  with  objects  belonging  to  separate  classes,  groups  of  desires  or 
inclinations  arise,  and  we  call  these  groups  by  general  names,  such  as  the 
love  of  money,  the  love  of  honor,  the  love  of  fame.  These  desires  grow  in 
intensity  according  to  the  amount  of  time  during  which  they  are  allowed 
to  continue  in  the  mind,  and  the  amount  of  space  they  are  allowed  to 
occupy  in  it.  Add  to  this  fact  that  we  naturally  put  a  value  on  the 
things  which  we  desire,  and  regard  some  as  higher  than  others,  and  we 
enter  the  region  of  morals.  Two  or  three  functions  of  mind  lie  before  us 
which  we  are  able  to  discharge  at  the  time.  We  weigh  these  functions  in 
the  balance.  W^e  pronounce  one  of  a  higher  nature  than  the  others.  This 
is  the  one  which  we  feel  bound  to  perform.  Thus  the  function  of  the  eye 
is  a  nobler  one  than  that  of  the  nose  or  the  taste;  and,  hence,  the  educator 
who  trains  the  child  to  see  is  performing  a  nobler  function  than  he  who 
indulges  a  child's  taste  for  sweets.  All  functions  may  be  necessary,  but 
each  must  have  its  own  place  in  a  well-arranged  and  systematic  order  of 
gradation. 

The  first  essential,  then,  to  a  good  practical  training  is  to  impress  on 

the  pupil  the  true  value  of  all  actions  and  things.     He  is  enabled  to  attain 

to  this  only  by  having  a  clear  intellect  and  a  right  state  of 

Will  and  feeij^g,  and,  therefore,  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged,  that  a 

action.     .(.|j(^j.Q^^gjj  intellectual  education  is  an  important  element  in  the 

attainment  of  a  sound  moral  character.     But,  besides  this,  we  learn  to  act 

by  acting.    There  is  a  natural  instinct  to  act,  and  this  instinct  must  not 


104  EDUCATION 

be  resisted  or  blunted.  It  is  by  one  action  that  wo  rise  to  the  power  of 
doing  a  greater.  Here  the  same  kind  of  fiction  as  that  which  we  have 
noticed  in  the  case  of  the  mental  faculties  is  apt  to  mislead.  Man  is  often 
spoken  of  as  possessing  a  will;  but  man  has  not  one  will,  but  many  wills. 
The  word  wiU  is  used  to  denote  the  complicated  power  which  man 
possesses,  through  his  original  faculties  and  the  exercise  of  them,  to  will 
for  the  future.  But,  if  this  be  the  case,  the  strength  of  the  power  to  will 
in  any  particular  case  depends  upon  the  previous  exercise  which  the  mind 
has  hai  in  willing  similar  actions;  and  so  a  man  may  have  a  strong  will  in 
one  direction,  and  a  weak  will  in  another.  Hence,  the  educator  must  take 
care  to  bring  into  activity  the  willing  power  of  his  pupil  in  as  many 
directions  as  he  can,  without  impairing  his  strength  of  will  in  the  most 
important  directions.  Moreover,  in  action,  we  are  influenced  strongly  by 
the  action  of  others,  just  as  in  feeling  by  the  feeling  of  others.  The  teacher 
who  wishes  to  lead  his  pupils  to  ac.ion,  must  himself  act  first.  The 
influence  of  example  is  all-powerful  in  this  matter.  And,  finally,  as 
willing  depends  first  upon  fixing  an  appropriate  aim,  and,  secondly,  on 
selecting  the  right  means,  the  pupil  must  be  trained,  in  all  cases,  to 
use  the  right  means.  The  clear  insight  into  tlie  true  value  of  actions, 
that  is,  into  the  aims  which  should  guide  us,  may  be   of  comparatively 

Httle  use,  if  we  have  not  the  good  sense  to  employ  suitable 
quidance   "^sails  for  our  purposes.     These  are  the    general    rules  which 

regulate  practical  education.  It  would  be  impossible  in  an 
article  like  this  to  go  into  the  particular  phenomena  which  must  be 
investigated  before  the  educator  can  have  a  proper  grasp  of  the  subject. 
Just  as  in  the  case  of  the  feelings,  desires  and  inclinations  arise  in 
connection  with  all  the  activities  of  man,  —  with  the  physical,  the  in- 
tellectual, the  emotional,  and  the  practical  forms  of  man's  energy;  and 
they  embrace  the  same  extent  of  objects.  They  connect  themselves  Avith 
nature,  with  ones  own  self,  with  other  men,  with  God.  But,  they  have 
wider  ramifications,  and  a  more  potent  influence  than  the  feelings,  and 
open  up,  therefore,  a  wider  field  for  investigation;  and,  in  this  subject, 
aberrations  demand  the  closest  attention.  The  educator  has  continually 
to  guard  against  the  formation  and  strengthening  of  inclinations  which 
imperil  the  well-being  of  the  individual  ami  the  race. 

Lastly,  there  is  religious  education,  embracing  within  it  intellectual, 
emotional,  and  moral  aspects.  Religion  may  be  said  to  arise  in  a  feel- 
jf  J-  ■  ^  iiig-  ^^'^e  feel  our  weakness  and  littleness.  AVe  feel  that  we 
education.  *'^®  limited  in  power,  in  knowledge,  in  vital  energy.     We  feel 

surrounded,  on  every  hand,  by  powers  that  are  stronger  than 
we  are,  and  hemmed  in  by  irresistible  forces.  If  this,  however,  were 
the  only  feehng,  despair  would  lay  hold  of  us.  But,  we  come  to  feel 
that  the  irresistible  forces  are  not  antagonistic  to  us,  that  we  can  come 
into  harmonious  relations  with  the  supernatural,  that,  to  use  the  Christian 
mode  of  thought,  we  can  trust  in  a  (iod  of  justice  and  love.  It  is 
when  \YQ  gain  this  feeling  of  trust  that  we  attain  to  a  religion.  But, 
a  religion  advances  beyond  the  mere  feeling;  it  sets  down  God  or  gods, 
as  possessing  a  certain  character,  and,  therefore,  enjoining  a  certain  kind 
of  worship.  p]specially  does  the  Christian  religion  present  definite  con- 
ceptions as  to  the  character  of  God,  and  enjoin,  as  the   first  condition 


ELABORATR^E  FACULTY  —  ELOCUTION  105 

of  worsliip  and  as  the  great  law  of  life,  love  to  God  and  love  to  man 
practically  exhibited.  The  Christian  religion  thus  brings  into  play  the 
feehngs  as  the  foundation  of  religion,  the  intellectual  powers  in  appre- 
hending its  great  truths,  and  the  inclinations  and  practical  powers  in 
carrying  them  out. 

The  subject  of  education  is  discussed  in  a  great  variety  of  treatises. 
The  most  satisfactory  discussion,  in  our  opinion,  is  contained  in  the 
works  of  Herbart  and  Beneke.  Herbart's  educational  writings 
Literature,  -^^^q  ^^ggn  collected  and  published  recently  in  two  volumes 
(Leipsic,  1873 — 1875)  under  the  editorship  of  Otto  V/ilhnann.  Beneke"s 
great  work  on  the  subject  is  Erzieliungs-  mid  Unierriclitslehre  (2  vols., 
third  edition,  Berlin,  18G4).  The  first  volume  is  devoted  to  Education, 
the  second  to  Insiruction.  Of  the  followers  of  Ilerbart,  Zillers  works 
deserve  special  mention;  and  of  those  of  Beneke,  the  works  of  Dittes 
and  Dressier.  The  educator  wUl  also  derive  much  good  from  the  study 
of  the  best  works  on  psychology.  Both  Herbart  and  Beneke  have  written 
hand-books  of  psychology;  and,  in  English,  special  mention,  may  be  made 
of  the  writings  of  Sir  AMlham  Hamilton,  Dr.  Morell,  Prof.  Bain,  and  Mr. 
Herbert  Spencer,  the  last  of  whom  has  a  work  specially  devoted  to  edu- 
cation {Education:  Intellectual,  31oral,  and  Physical).  For  other  refer- 
ences, see  Ci/clopcedia  of  Education. 

ELABORATIVB  FACULTY,  a  term  often  used,  at  the  present 
time,  to  indicate  that  function  of  the  mind  by  which  it  employs  the 
materials  supplied  by  sensation,  perception,  conception,  and  consciousness 
(or  the  inner  sense),  and  builds  them  up  into  systems  or  chains  of  thought 
and  reasoning.  The  different  processes  that,  according  to  this  nomenclature, 
are  elaborative,  are  comparison,  abstraction,  generalization,  jiidgment,  and 
reasoning.  To  these  particular  processes  the  term  tliought  is  now  often 
restricted,  instead  of  being,  as  formerly,  applied  indifferently  to  every 
intellectual  operation.  Dr.  Hopkins,  in  An  Outline  Study  of  Man  (N.  Y., 
1876),  thus  describes  this  faculty  and  its  functions:  "The  processes  of  the 
elaborative  faculty  hold  the  same  relation  to  the  materials  brought  into 
the  mind  that  the  processes  of  building  and  repairing  hold  to  the  materials 
which  are  brought  into  the  body.  The  building  and  repairing  systems  take 
hold  of  that  which  is  brought  into  the  system  and  elaborate  it;  they 
transform  it,  and  make  of  it  another  thing.  The  elaborative  system  does 
the  same  thing  in  the  mind.  It  takes  the  material  given  by  the  presenta- 
tive  faculty  [sensation,  perception,  etc.],  and  performs  the  operations  of 
comparison,  abstraction,  etc."  Dr.  Porter,  in  The  Human  Intellect  (N.  Y., 
1869),  thus  defines  the  office  of  the  elaborative  faculty:  "The  thinking 
power  has  been  treated  as  twofold,  and  been  subdivided  into  two:  the 
elaborative  faculty,  as  performing  the  processes,  and  the  regulative,  as 
furnishing  the  rules,  or  more  properly  as  prescribing  the  sphere  and 
possibility  of  thought.  These  are  named  also  the  dianoetic  and  the  noetic 
faculty.  By  some  writers  they  are  distinguished  as  the  understanding  and 
reason,  in  a  usage  suggested  by  Kant,  but  deviating  materially  from  his 
own.  Milton  and  others  call  them  the  discursive  and  instinctive  reason". 
(See  Intellectual  Education'.) 

ELOCUTION,  the  utterance  or  expression  of  thought  in  reading  and 
speaking,  is  an  important  part  of  a  scholastic  education,  because  of  the 


lOG  EMPIRICAL  METHODS  —  EMOTION?^ 

constant  need  of  such  vocal  utterance  in  the  ordinary  circumstances  of 
both  ]jrivate  and  public  life.  The  departments  into  which  tliis  subject 
naturally  divides  itself  arc  the  following:  (1)  Articulation,  or  the  proper 
and  distinct  enunciation  of  the  elementary  sounds  as  usually  combined  in 
words;  (2)  Pronunciation,  as  dependent  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  various 
sounds  represented  by  letters  and  their  diverse  combinations  in  words,  and 
upon  accentuation;  (3)  Emphasis,  or  the  placing  of  a  stress  of  the  voice 
upon  a  particular  word  or  woi'ds  of  a  sentence,  so  as  to  bring  out  the 
meaning  fully,  and  to  give  life  and  spirit  to  the  delivery;  (4)  Yoice  inflec- 
tions, —  upwar  1,  downward,  or  waved,  as  a  means  of  giving  a  partic- 
ular significance  to  words  or  sentences,  and  as  auxiliary  to  emphasis; 
(5)  'I'ones,  or  those  variations  of  the  voice  in  pitch,  force,  and  quality,  by 
which  it  is  modulated  to  the  expression  of  particular  sentiments  and  emo- 
tions.  (See  Readixc;,  and  YoicK,  Cclturk  of.) 

EMPIRICAL  METHODS,  those  methods  of  instruction  or  education 
which  are  based  not  on  theoretical  principles,  but  on  the  effects  of  practical 
T)  fl  V  0])erations  as  learned  by  experience.  Hence  the  term  (from 
ejini  ion.  (j^,  i^-^.^^jj^^^  experience).  AVhen  the  aijplication  of  scientific 
methods,  or  those  derived  from  general  principles,  is  possible,  tlie  use  of 
empirical  methods  becomes  a  cause  of  reproach,  and  is  to  be  condemned. 
The  science  of  education  is,  however,  too  unsettled  and  incomplete  to 
justify  such  condemnation,  except  to  a  limited  extent.  Methods  that  have 
j^...  stood  the  test  of  actual  experiment,  and  have  j^roved  effective, 
"  ^"  are  not  to  be  discarded  merely  because  the  principle  underlying 
them  is  not  understood,  or  because  they  seem  to  contradict  some  favorite 
theory.  Such  experimental  processes  are  the  source  of  much  valuable  ex- 
perience, and  the  facts  thus  obtained  should  be  generalized  so  as  to  su^jply 
additional  scientific  principles,  or  correct  those  already  deduced.  In  this 
way,  the  ])ractical  experience  of  educators  may  be  employed  to  improve 
and  extend  the  science  of  education.     On  the  other  hand,  it  is  undoubtedly 

true  that  teachers  are  too  apt  to  follow  empirical  methods 
J!fottohe  blindly,  without  concerning  themselves  with  principles,  "^llie 
blindly,    complaint    is   often   and  justly   made   that  education  is  not 

scientitic;  and,  that,  consequjntly  old  methods  and  processes  are 
often  employed,  wlien  the  circumstances  render  them  entirely  inapplicable. 
This  would  naturally  be  the  result  of  adhering  to  emjjirical  metliods,  since 
principles  alone  can  guide  to  a  just  discrimination  as  to  practical  processes. 

"J'he  "rule  of  thumb' may  answer  when  the  operator  is  confined 
nced^if^  to  a  very  narrow  sphere  of  his  art,  and  is  never  obliged  to  depart 

from  it;  but  it  is  entirely  inadequate  to  grapple  with  thedillicul- 
ties  presented  in  a  varied  and  enlarged  sphere  of  practical  effort,  whatever 
the  art  or  profession  may  be.  This  is  particularly  true  of  education,  since 
the  elements  with  which  it  has  to  deal  are  as  innumerable  in  their 
combinations  as  the  pliases  of  human  character.  In  proportion  as  educa- 
tion emerges  from  this  condition  of  empiricism,  and  assumes  a  settled 
scientific  status,  its  practical  ojjerations  will  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a  pro- 
fession, and  those  engaged  in  it  will  receive  the  consideration  which  apper- 
tains to  the  professional  character. 

EMOTIONS  are  those  conditions  of  the  mind  in  which  the  sensibihty 
is  excited,  so  as  to  act  upon  the  will,  and  with  the  tendency  to  outward 


EMULATION  107 

manifestation  in  bodily  acts.  The  difference  between  emotions  and  pas- 
sions is  rather  quantitative  than  quaUtative;  the  former,  while  character- 
Emotions  ^^^'-^  ^J  ^^^  intensity  of  feeling,  still  leave  a  considerable  scope 
and  for  the  exercise  of  reason  and  judgment;  the  latter,  for  the  time 
passions,  being,  disturb  the  equilibrium  of  self-consciousness,  and  produce 
a  condition  in  which  the  mind  is  overmastered  and  controlled  by  the 
particular  feeling,  and  is  borne  along  by  its  force,  helpless  and  suifering 
(hence  the  name  ^:>«ssioM,  meaning  sufftring).  Of  this,  we  have  illustrations 
in  the  effects  of  extreme  anger,  love,  hatred,  or  revenge.  Emotions  are 
^      .  also  to  be  distinguished  from  sentiments,  the  latter  being  to  a 

<.en  ^^i^'>^i^-  greater  extent  based  on  mental  discriminations,  and  more  steady 
and  durable  in  their  nature.  Thus,  he  who  has  cultivated  the  sentiment 
of  patriotism,  cannot  but  feel  an  emotion  of  joy  at  a  victory  gained  by  his 
country  over  her  enemies.     Emotions  are  likewise  to  be  distinguished  from 

feelings,  or  the  immediate  sensations  of  the  physical  organism, 
ee  incis.  giyjng  rise  to  mental  perceptions,  or  to  bodily  pleasure  or  pain. 
The  nature  of  children  is  more  emotional  than  that  of  grown  persons,  be- 
cause the  restraining  principle  of  the  mind  is  less  active,  and  the  sensibility 
more  fresh  and  more  acute.     This  is  particularly  true  of  certain  kinds  of 
temperament  and  mental  constitution.    The  office  of  education  is  to  rec- 
ognize every  principle  of  the  human  being,  and  to  employ  it  or  appeal  to 
it  in  the  educative  processes.     An  emotional  nature  should  be  cherished; 
inasmuch  as  one  who  is  deficient  in  this  respect  is  apt  to  be  cold,  selfish, 
and  unsocial.     The  emotions  are  not  only  compatible  with,  but 
Culture     necessary  to,  the  best  elements  of  man's  moral  nature;  and  the 
emotions  educator  should  strive  to   connect  them  with  moral  motives. 
The  attempt  to  awaken  emotion  in  the  minds  of  children  by 
mere  sentimentahty  is  futile  and  ridiculous.     Stirring  stories  of  heroism, 
endurance,  patriotism,  generosity,  self-denial,  filial  affection,  etc.  will  awak- 
en corresponding   emotions;  and  when  properly  applied  constitute  a  means 
of  emotional  culture;  but  youth  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  pennitted  to 
yield  to  the  natural  emotions  to  which  the  ordinary  circumstances  of  their 
lives  give  rise;  they  should  witness  emotion  in  others,  under  restraint,  but 
still  expressed;  and  by  imitation,  as  well  as  instinctive  impulse,  be  habitu- 
ated to  ardor  in  their  feelings  toward  all  that  is  beautiful,  true,  and  good 
in  natural  objects,  historical  incidents,  or  the  conduct  of  those  with  whom 
they  meet  in  their  daily  lives. 

EMULATION  (Lat.  cemulatio,  from  cpmulus,  a  rival),  the  desire  to 

excel,  is  a  principle  of  action  which  has  had  a  very  general  application  in 

.     practical  education,  being  one  of  the  most  common  incentives 

education  '^^'ought  to  bear  upon  children  and  youth  to  induce  exertion  iu 

'  study.  The  various  systems  of  merit  m.arks,  frizes,  etc..  are 
based  upon  this  principle,  inasmuch  as  they  definitely  recognize  and  reward 
isuperiority  or  excellence. 

Scarcely  any  subject  has  been  more  thoroughly  discussed   than   the 

propriety  of  resorting  to  emulation  as  a  school  incentive.     On  the  one 

hand,  it  has  been  held  that  the  human  mind,  particularly  in  its 

foriis^use  i""^^fiture  state,  needs  the  stimulus  of  secondary  motives  to 

'  awaken  its  dormant  energies,  especially  for  the  accomplishment 
of  tasks  in  which  it  takes  only  an  imperfect  interest.     Naturally,  children 


108  EXCOUEAGEMENT 

are  but  little  prone  to  study,  their  fondness  being  rather  for  active  sporta 
and  amusements:  and,  hence,  the  awakening  of  an  interest  in  the  studies 
themselves,  while  an  important  object  of  the  teacher's  efforts,  cannot  be 
depended  upon  to  incite  tlie  pui)il  to  continuous  industry.  While  there 
are  some  minds  and  temperaments  that  feel  an  almost  innate  desire  for 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  hence  a  love  of  study,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  great  majority  of  children  have  no  such  desire  until  it  is 
engendered  by  the  force  of  secondary  motives,  that  is,  by  holding  out 
inducements  to  study  based  upon  the  attainment  of  things  in  which  they 
do  take  an  interest.  All  children  are,  more  or  less,  prone  to  emulation; 
they  love  to  excel  others,  particularly  in  things  that  bring  commendation 
and  honor,  in  this  respect  resembling  those  of  maturer  years;  for  this  prin- 
ciple of  action  has   been   recognized   as  leading  to   eminence   in   every 

department  of  human  effort.  Hence,  in  schools  and  colleges, 
Cautions,  emulation  is  an  important  and  valuable  incentive  which  the 
educator  may,  by  no  means,  cast  aside.  Of  course,  it  is  not  to  be  allowed 
to  degenerate  into  personal  strife,  animosity,  or  jealousy;  nor  is  it  to  be 
indulged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obliterate  the  pupils  real  interest  in  the 
study  pursued.  It  is  always  to  be  impressed  upon  the  student's  mind  that 
he  is  vvorking  in  a  good  cause,  and  that  he  should  strive  to  attain  to  the 
highest  possible  degree  of  excellence  in  it,  —  higher,  if  he  can,  than  that 
which  he  sees  has  been  attained  by  any  of  his  fellow  students.  Thus  what 
others  achieve  becomes  the  measure  of  what  can  be  done  by  him  if  he 
exerts  himself  to  the  utmost,  and  also  the  standard  beyond  which  he  is  to 
go  in  order  to  obtain  the  prize  of  excellence.  For  a  fuller  treatment  of 
this  subject  see  Ci/clopcedid  of  Education. 

ENCOURAGrEMENT,  as  an  educational  incentive,  is  of  indispensable 
importance  in  dealing  with  a  certain  class  of  minds,  particularly  with  those 
Impor-  characterized  by  an  excess  of  caution,  timidity,  and  diffidence. 
tance.  Many  teachers  repress  the  exertions  of  their  pupils  by  failing  to 
discern  their  true  character,  so  as  to  be  able  to  ascertain  the  amount  of 
effort  they  may  have  put  forth  in  order  to  accomplish  an  assigned  task,  or 
to  avoid  a  temptation  to  do  wrong.  Adopting  an  arbitrary  standard,  they 
sometimes  condemn  alike  all  who  fail  to  attain  it,  making  no  allowance 
for  diversity  of  talent,  opportunity,  or  the  power  of  will;  whereas  the  true 
test  of  a  pupil's  merit  is  not  the  accomplishment  of  the  task,  but  the 
exertion  put  forth  and  the  self-control  exercised  in  the  endeavor  to  comply 
with  the  teacher's  precepts  or  directions.      Encouragement^  consists  in 

adjusting  the  standard  of  success  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
Hoirtohe  j^,^j  ^j.j^j^g  (j{  ^-ijg  p^^pii  jf  xhQ  latter  is  dull,  indolent,  self- 
appne  .  jjjjyigg^t^  feeble  in  will,  and  yielding  easily  to  temptation,  the 
educator  who  recognizes  these  traits,  accepts  with  satisfaction  the  feeblest 
efforts  at  amendment  which  he  sees  have  been  put  forth,  and  by  judicious 
commendation  induces  stronger  and  more  persistent  ones,  until  the  founda- 
tion of  moral  or  intellectual  strength  has  been  safely  laid.  'J'imid  children 
must  be  encouraged  to  lay  aside  their  fears  by  being  shown  that  they  are 
groundless.  They  must  not  be  repressed  by  harsh  words  of  censure,  or  by 
those  forms  of  punishment  which  should  be  the  exclusive  penalty  of  willful 
wrong-doing.  On  the  contrary,  they  should  be  made  to  feel  that,  even  if 
they  have  failed,  they  have  won  their  teacher's  approving  smiles  by  their 


ENGLISH  109 

honest  efforts.  All  the  various  forms  of  encouragement,  -within  the  power 
of  a  teacher  of  skill  and  experience,  will  find  occasions  for  employment  in 
dealing  with  the  endless  diversities  of  character  presented  by  the  pupils  of 
a  large  class  or  school.  Some  minds,  on  the  other  hand,  need  rather  urging 
than  gentle  encouragement;  and  the  latter,  in  the  form  of  excessive  praise, 
to  tcdented  pupils  is  often  a  means  of  flattering  their  vanity,  and  thus 
operates  as  a  kind  of  moral  poison,  destroying  the  force  of  every  true 
stimulus  to  activity. 

ENGLISH,   the  Study  of.     The  mother-tongue  has  peculiar  rela- 
tions to  education.     Language  has  a  twofold  nature,  —  on  the  one  side, 
Eelations  voice,  on  the  other,  thought.    Early  thought  is  almost  all  stimu- 
to  educa-  lated,  guided,  and  siipported  by  the  mother-tongue.  All  early  ac- 
tion,     quisition  of  knowledge  may  be  regarded  as  the  study  of  the 
mother-tongue;  and,  even  in  civilized  nations,  few  persons  ever  advance 
beyond  the  knowledge  stored   up  for  them  in  their  native  speech.     The 
mother-speech  is  also  the  means  of  communicating  with  others,  and  of  in- 
fluencing them;  so  that  the  study  of  it  as  an  art  includes  the  study  of  rhet- 
oric and  oratory,  and  of  the  art  of  poetry. 

It  would  seem  then  that  there  are  four  chief  direct  uses  in  studying 
English:   (1)  To  understand  what  is  spoken  or  written  in  that  language; 
(2)  To  speak  it  well;   (3)  To  write  it  well;  and   (4)  To  master 
Uses.      English  literature.     And  there  are  three  remoter  ends:  (1)  To 
master  the  language  scientitically;   (2)  To  acquire  the  knowledge  of  lan- 
guage in  general;  and  (3)  General  culture. 

Early  study,  in  infant  schools,  kindergartevs,  and  primary  scliools. 
—  The  meaning  of  ^vords  is  the  first  thing  children  learn  of  languages. 
The  names  of  a  few  familiar  objects  and  acts  are  repeated  in  connection 
with  the  objects  and  the  acts  themselves  so  often,  that  the  infant's 
ofwm-d^  thought  passes  promptly  from  the  sound  to  the  thing.  Thus, 
'  papa,  mamma,  kiss,  laugh,  make  the  child  think  of  the  person 
or  act  before  it  can  speak  any  words.  Many  words  are  also  attached  to 
thoughts  by  being  often  heard  connected  with  other  words  in  discourse.  Such 
knowledge,  caught  by  the  child  rather  than  taught  to  it,  is  for  the  most  part 
very  indefinite  and  inexact,  but  no  part  of  education  is  more  important. 

The  objects  named  should  be  objects  worthy  of  thought.  Good  and 
bad  qualities  should  be  marked  by  such  tones  and  manner  as  will  give 
their  names  correct  and  powerful  associations.  The  means  of 
'^Mecis  expressing  the  affections  should  be  carefully  taught..  In  the 
kindergarten  or  other  infant  school,  care  should  be  methodically 
taken  to  teach  the  words  which  accurately  name  the  objects  and  processes 
that  the  children  learn;  unnamed  objects  and  processes,  however  amusing 
or  ingenious,  enter  little  into  thought  and  contribute  little  to  culture.  A 
■  leading  purpose  in  all  object  teaching  should  be  to  give  valuable  ideas;  but 
that  is  the  same  as  giving  familiarity  with  good  words.  Teachers  of  infant 
schools  need  good  books,  containing  classified  lists  of  important  words, 
with  directions  how  to  teach  them  by  means  of  well-chosen  object  lessons, 
and  amusing  occupations.  (See  Kindergarten,  and  Object  Teaching.) 
For  children  of  a  larger  growth,  we  have  a  great  number  of  Spellers  and 
Definers,  and  small  dictionaries  which  teach  the  meaning  of  English  words. 
The  latter  should  be  constantly  used. 


110  ENGLISH 

The  study  of  meanings  in  such  manuals  is,  however,  of  little  AA'ortb, 
unless  supplemented  by  object  teaching  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the  study 
of  discourse  on  the  other.     Manuals  of  object  teaching  arranged 
Object     £qj,  ^YiQ  purpose  are  wanting.     Object  teachers  often  contrast  the 
teac  mg.  gj.^jy  ^i^  words  with  the  study  of  things,  and  condemn  the  study 
of  words,  instead  of  teaching  them  through  their  exercises.     There  are 
many  books  made  up  of  progressive  selections  of  discourse,  intended  to  in- 
troduce young  pupils  to  words.     Most  Primers  and  Renders  attempt  some- 
thincr  in  this  way,  and  some  are  skillfully  prepared  with  notes  and  exercises 
for  this  purpose. 

To  speak  well  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  meanings  of  words  and  of 
the  combinations  in  which  they  are  actually  used,  of  the  meanings  and  uses 
of  grammatical  prefixes  and  sutfixes,  and  of  the  exact  sounds 
How  to  which  are  made  by  good  speakers.  Speaking  must  go  on  at  a 
cuUimte  cgrtain  speed;  and,  therefore,  thoughts,  words,  and  the  movements 
speaiciiiq  of  the  vocal  organs  must  be  closely  associated,  so  as  to  follow 
one  another  without  effort  and  with  great  rapidity.  Much 
practice  in  speaking  is  necessary  in  order  to  speak  well;  and,  in  general, 
practice  in  the  very  kind  of  speaking  in  which  the  excellence  is  desired. 
In  the  early  stages  of  education,  this  must  be  almost  wholly  imitative 
practice.  Children  catch  and  use  the  sounds  and  forms  which  make  the 
liveliest  impression  on  them,  and  whicli  they  hear  oftenest;  to  use  a  form 
or  sound  once,  makes  it  most  likely  to  occur  to  the  mind  again.  Teachers 
should,  therefore,  train  by  inducing  imitation  of  their  own  speech.  Exer- 
cises may  be  used  in  repeating  after  the  teacher  the  elementary  sounds, 
and  afterwards  difficult  words,  and  then  familiar  dialogues,  and  finally 
passages  of  poetry,  or  elevated  prose,  which  the  teacher  likes  and  can 
repeat  with  feeling.  Incorrect  articulation  and  bad  gramnjar  should  be 
constantly  corrected,  not  by  repeating  and  caricaturing  what  is  faulty  but 
by  substituting  the  correct  expression.  Children  should  also  be  encouraged 
to  talk,  at  proper  times,  to  repeat  the  explanations  of  the  teacher,  not 
verbatim  throughout,  but  yet  with  a  constant,  close,  and  correct  use  of 
the  technical  terms  or  important  words;  nor  is  it  unscientific  to  commit 
to  memory  formulas  of  permanent  importance,  to  be  fully  comprehended 
afterwards;  such  as  the  multiplication  table,  catechisms  of  moral  and 
religious  truth,  and  noble  utterances  which  it  does  men  good  to  have  fast 
in  the  memory.  The  youth  should  be  led  on  by  language  faster  and 
farther  than  his  own  thoughts  could  have  gone  alone.  Practice  of  this 
kind  will  naturally  go  along  with  reading. 

Learning  to  read  sliould  begin  early.  'J'he  monstrous  spelling  of  the 
English  language  makes  this  much  more  difficult  than  to  learn  to  read 
German;  and  teaching  the  names  of  the  letters,  and  the  sounds 
Methods.  q£  ^j^g  syllables  as  if  made  up  of  them,  has  a  mischievous  effect 
on  the  reason  of  the  learners.  Several  methods  are  used  in  our  schools 
to  overcome  the  difficulties.  The  word-method  (q.  v.)  is  one.  In  this, 
children  are  taught  to  recognize  words  as  wholes  before  learning  the 
letters.  In  skillfully  prepared  books,  with  pictorial  illustrations,  children 
learn  to  read  very  rapidly  by  this  method,  but  not  so  accurately;  and  it  is 
very  hard  to  teach  them  to  .'^pell.  Skillful  teachers  will  use  a  judicious 
combination  of  the   two  methods.     Books  are   also  prepared  with  an 


ENGLISH  111 

alphabet  in  which  each  letter  has  always  the  same  sound,  a  proper  phonetic 
alphabet,  and  with  classified  examples  of  words,  and  reading  extracts,  spelt 
in  the  phonetic  alphabet  wholly  at  first,  and  gradually  passing  to  our 
standard  spelling.  These  have  been  iised  for  some  years  in  New  York, 
Boston,  St.  Louis,  and  elsewhere,  and  are  reported  to  save  one  half  of  the 
time  usually  devoted  to  learning  to  read.  There  is  now  an  active  movement 
for  the  reform  of  our  spelling  which  it  may  be  hoped  will  save  the  next 
generation  much  time  and  toil.  (See  Orthogeaphy,  and  Phonetics.  )  Books 
of  this  kind  are  Leigh's  edition  of  various  elementary  reading- 
Jiootcs.  jjoojjg.  j^igQ  Davis"s  American  Primer,  Douais  Rntioual 
Phonetic  Primer,  Longley's  American  Phonetic  Primer,  Sheldon's  New 
Phonetic  Primer,  Shearer's  Combination  Speller,  Viceroy's  Phonetic 
First  Reader.  Primary  cards  and  charts  to  aid  in  this  early  instruction 
are  to  be  had  in  good  variety.  Practice  in  writing  is  one  of  the  best  aids 
in  learning  to  read  and  spell,  and  hence,  cojiying  choice  extracts,  and  then 
writing  them  down  from  memory,  is  quite  useful.  Soon  after  lessons  in 
penmanship  begin,  grammar  should  be  taken  up. 

Grammar  is  often  used  as  a  name  for  the  whole  science  of  language 
and  the  art  of  using  it;  but  by  masters  of  the  science  of  language,  it  is  now 
_  confined  to  the  classification  of  words  into  parts  of  speech, 
G-rammcu.  according  to  their  uses  in  discourse,  the  description  and  exposi- 
tion of  the  changes  of  form  called  inflections,  and  the  uses  of  these  in  the 
correct  construction  of  sentences.  There  would  be  some  advantage  in 
dropping  the  old  traditional  definitions,  which  lead  teachers  and  pupils  to 
expect  that  the  study  of  English  grammar  will  make  them  able  to  speak 
and  write  the  English  language  correctly.  It  is  only  one  of  the  helps  to 
correctness  in  speaking  and  writing.  I'he  attempt  by  makers  of  school 
grammars  and  by  teachers  to  do  too  much  is  one  reason  why  the  study  is 
so  much  neglected  and  abused.  Descriptive  grammar  consists  of  defini- 
tions of  the  parts  of  speech,  paradigms,  and  rules  of  syntax.  With  children, 
a  careful  selection  of  simple  and  typical  matter  should  be  made,  just  as  in 
botany  or  in  any  other  science.  This  matter  should  consist  of  definitions 
and  rules,  stated  in  accurate  scientific  language,  but  simply  and  briefly; 
and  of  selections  of  words  and  sentences,  also  simple  and  clear,  and  suited 
to  illustrate  the  definitions  and  rules.  "Jhis  matter  should  be  managed  by 
the  teacher  so  as  to  use  mere  verbal  memory  as  little  as  possible,  and  to 
train  the  pupil  to  see,  hear,  and  think  as  much  as  possible.  The  definitions 
and  the  rules  should  be  learned  like  rules  in  arithmetic,  but  the  main  Avork 
should  be  the  application  of  them  to  examples.  The  scholar  should  every 
day  hand  in  written  grammar  work  on  the  slate  or  on  paper,  like  sums  in 
arithmetic;  and  the  preparation  and  explanation  of  this  work  should  be 
the  main  grammar  lesson  in  the  early  years.  This  method  needs  some 
system  of  notation  by  which  any  sentence  may  be  put  on  paper  or  on  the 
blackboard  with  its  words  so  designated  by  signs,  or  by  an  arrangement 
in  diagrams,  that  the  analysis  and  parsing  of  it  may  be  made  plain  to  the 
eye.  Such  systems  are  found  in  several  books.  A  considerable  number 
of  our  best  teachers  use  substantially  this  method,  many  of  them,  without 
a  book,  dictating,  day  by  day,  definitions  which  the  pupils  are  to  remember, 
and  giving  out  words  and  sentences  to  be  classified  and  analyzed,  also 
proposing  trials  in  collecting  and  inventing  words  and  sentences  of  the 


112  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

kind  to  be  studied.  Books  are  often  wholly  condemned  by  these  teachers, 
■who  collect,  year  by  year,  in  their  own  note-books,  or  memories,  a  store  of 
happy  questions  and  examples,  as  well  as  carefully  considered  definitions 
and  rules;  and  it  would  obviously  be  a  great  help  to  young  teachers,  as 
well  as  to  pupils,  to  get  a  good  note-book  of  this  kind,  neatly  printed,  and 
there  are  some  books  for  beginners  which  are,  in  substance,  such  note- 
books. For  a  full  treatment  of  this  subject,  with  directions  as  to  advanced 
instruction,  see  Ci/clopcedid  of  Education. 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE.     This  is  a  very  important,  but  an 
enormously  extensive  subject  for  school  instruction.     The  whole  cycle  of 
literature  is  no  more  to  be  known  by  one  person  than  the  whole  circle  of 
the  sciences,  still  less  by  young  people  at  school.     The  impossibility  of 
Queslinn's  achieving  the  whole  task  being  seen,  two  questions  at  once  arise: 
to  bedis-   (1)  What  shall  we  teach  and  what  leave  untaught  ?  and  (2)  How 
cussed,     shall  we  teach  it  ? 
In  attempting  to  answer  the  first  of  these  questions,  we  can  find  some 
guidance  from  analogy;  and  the  school  subject  which  appears,  in  its  vast 
size  and  the  enormous  contents  of  its  wealth,  to  have  the  closest 
Details  to  resemblance  to  literature  is  the  subject  of  geography.     Now,  in 
e  acoi  er .  ggQgj,g^pi,y^  ^yg  (\q  not  burden  the  attention  and  overload  the 
memory  of  our  pupils  with  the  infinite  number  of  names  of  small  towns, 
insignificant  rivers,  diminutive  lakes,  and  luiimportant  headlands;  but  we 
take  only  the  most  prominent  and,  as  it  were,  the  central  features  of  the 
Avorld,  and  round  these  we  group  the  knowledge  which  is  intended  to  abide 
with  the  pupil,  and  to  serve  as  a  nucleus  for  his  subsequent  accumulations. 
In  the  same  way,  there  are  certain  names  which  the  sifting  of  time  has 
caused  to  stand  out  with  always  increasing  clearness;  there  are  certain 
books  which  have  been,  and  which   continue  to  he,/o}xes  in  the  develop- 
ment of  civilized  humanity;  and  it  is  with  these  authoi-s  and  with  these 
books  that  the  teacher  should  make  the  pupil  acquainted.     Thus  stated, 
the  path  seems  to  be  plain  —  so  plain  that  no  good  teacher  can  miss  it. 
Hut  there  are  two  dangers  —  two  besetting  sins,  which  await  the  teacher 
in  his  attempts  toward  the  systematic  treatment  of  a  sulyoct  so  large;  and 
Encmlo-  these  are  the  vices  of  encydopcpdism  and  abridgment.     Looked 
jHcdism    at  more  closely,  both  these  vices  are  seen  to  be  only  two  sides  of 
andahridg- i\\Q  same  central  error  —  an  error  which  pervades  all  kinds  of 
ment.      teaching,  and  which  is,  indeed,  the  most  prevalent  educational 
error  of  the  present  day.     By  enri/doprpi/ism,  is  meant  the  desire  to  include 
too  many  facts  —  and,  in  the  present  instance,  too  many  authors  —  within 
the  range  of  the  pupils  mental  vision;  and  the  consequence  is  a  pressure 
which  results  in  an  abridgment  of  the  closest  kind  —  an  abridgment  in 
which  nothing  is  said  of  —  no  facts  arc  given  about  —  the  author,  but  when 
he  was  born,  and  when  he  died,  and  the  name  of  his  best-known  book.     It 
is  plain  that  such  knowledge  is  no  knowledge  at  all,  and  is  of  no  more  value 
than  an  acquaintance  with  the  street  directory.     The  desire  to  teach  too 
much  ends  in  achieving  too  little;  the  attempt  to  learn  everything  results 
in  nothing.     Besides,  the  jjujiil  must  have  a  liring  and  v^tov'o?- knowledge 
of  English  literature,  and  not  a  dead  and  external  acquaintance  with  its 
mere  Imsk,  appendages,  and  circumstances;  and  the  question  which  presses 
upon  the  teacher  is  therefore:  How  is  this  to  be  done?    Before  answering 


ENGLISH  LITEEATUEE  113 

this  question,  the  teacher  must  have  settled  with  himself  what  is  to  be 
done. 

(1)  Let  us  suppose  that,  seeing  the  impossibility  of  embracing  aU  the 
details  of  so  large  a  field,  he  has  resolved  upon  making  a  selection  of  the 

best  writers  in  prose  and  verse  in  each  epoch.  Kound  each  of 
"^^^^{^'"^"'^  these  he  will  then  collect  the  most  able  of  his  contemporaries, 

and  explain  to  his  class  their  relations  and  the  influence  which 
each  had  upon  the  other,  and  which  the  requirements  and  spirit  of  the 
period  had  upon  them  all.     The  teacher  will  then,  probably,  select  Clinucer 

—  as  the  type  of  the  chivalric  period  of  I.nglish  Literature;  Mandeville 

—  as  the  "  Father  of  English  Prose';  Spenser  —  as  the  richest  poet  of  the 
Elizabethan  era;  Shakespeare  —  as  the  greatest  dramatist  of  the  period 
when  the  drama  was  at  its  highest;  i/ooAer  —  as  the  type  of  the  ornate 
and  elaborate  prose  style  of  the  sixteenth  century;  Bacon  —  as  tho  most 
compact  and  thoughtful  English  essayist;  Milton  —  as  the  poet  of  the  Eef- 
orniation,  and  the  master  of  the  most  sublime  rhythms  in  the  language, 
and  in  his  prose  works  the  most  elaborate  of  sentence-makers;  Butler  (in 
parts)  —  as  the  antipode  of  Milton;  Jeremy  Taylor  —  as  the  sweetest  prose- 
writer  of  the  seventeenth  century;  Dryden  —  as  the  herald  of  a  new  and 
more  "  popular"  style;  Pope  —  as  the  culmination  of  the  most  polished, 
clear-cut,  and  sparkling  English;  Swift —  as  the  most  powerful  intellect  of 
his  time;  Johnson  —  as  the  representative  of  the  massive  common-sense  of 
his  country,  too  ponderously,  though  characteristically,  expressed;  Gold- 
smith—  as  the  most  charming  writer  of  his  generation;  Burke  —  as  the 
most  briUiant  rhetorician  that  the  modern  world  has  seen ;  Cowper  —  as 
the  transition  and  the  link  between  the  age  of  Pope  and  the  nineteenth 
century;  Wordsworth  —  as  the  dawn  and  the  bright  shining  of  the  new 
day  of  Jiglish  literature,  and  De  Qiiincey  —  as  the  most  wonderful  prose- 
writer  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

(2)  But  it  is  evident  that  all  the  works  of  these  writers  cannot  be  read 
in  school;  and  a  selection  from  them  is,  therefore,  necessary.     Here  again 

common  repute  coraes  to  our  aid,  and  maps  out  our  course  for 
works      '^'^-    ^^  Chaucer,  we  should   probably  find  it  sufficient  to  read 

the  Prologue,  or  the  Knigldes  Tale,  or  the  Nan  of  Laic  es  Tale; 
in  Mandeville,  a  few  chapters  of  his  Travels;  m  Spenser,  a  book  or  two  of 
the  Faerie  Queene;  in  vShakespeare,  one  or  two  plays,  such  as  the  Merchant 
of  Venice,  or  King  Lear  {Hamlet  is  too  difiicult  and  super-subtle,  while  the 
subject  of  Othello  must  always  keep  it  out  of  schools) ;  in  Hooker^  the  First 
Book  of  his  Ecclesiastical  Polity;  in  Bacon,  twenty  of  his  best  Essays, 
such  as  those  on  Envy,  Great  Place,  or  Travaile;  in  Milton,  the  Lycidas, 
the  Comus,  the  Hymn  to  the  Nativity,  and  his  other  minor  works,  with 
perhaps  one  book  of  the  Paradise  Lost;  in  Butler,  one  or  two  Cantos  of 
the  Hudibras;  in  Jeremy  Taylor,  a  few  chapters  of  the  Holy  Living  and 
perhaps  a  Sermon;  in  Dryden,  the  Absalom  and  Achitopliel  and  the  3Iac 
Flecknoe;  in  Pope,  the  Rape  of  the  Lock  and  the  Essay  on  Criticism;  in 
Dr.  Johnson,  two  or  three  of  his  Lives  of  the  Poets  and  the  Preface  to  the 
Dictionary,  with  perhaps  i?(7S.seZ as;  in  Goldsmith,  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield, 
the  Traveller  and  the  Deserted  Village;  in  Burke,  the  Reflections  on  the 
French  Revolution  and  one  of  his  speeches;  in  Cowper,  the  Task,  the 
Progress  of  Error,  Truth,  and  some  of  his  minor  poems,  while  \xi^  Letters 


114  ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

should  be  read,  were  it  only  for  their  style;  in  "Wordsworth,  the  best  of  his 
Sonnets,  the  Lines  on  Tintern  Abbey,  Laodamia,  and  many  of  his  minor 
poems;  and  iu  De  Quincey,  his  Suspii'ia  de  Profundis,  his  Vision  of 
Sudden  Death,  and  some  of  his  criticisms. 

But,  even  after  all  this  has  been  done  and  well  done,  there  are  still  two 
things  to  do.     The  first  is  to  give  the  pupil  an  intelligible  and  striking 

view  of  our  literature  before  Chaucer  —  tliat  is,  from  the 
%n'^tillf  J^^owidf  of  the  Sth  century  —  a  poem  which,  like  the  Iliad, 
"  existed  only  in  the  memory  and  not  in  a  written  form,  for 
several  hundred  years  —  down  to  Caedmon.  Eeda,  and  King  Alfred,  to 
the  Saxon  Chronicle  and  Chaucer.  This  ought  to  be  done  orally  by  the 
teacher,  who  should,  at  the  same  time,  write  upon  the  blackboard  short 
characteristic  extracts  from  the  works  of  these  authors,  and  explain  and 
illustrate  the  growth  of  the  oldest  English,  with  its  highly  inflected  forms, 
into  our  present  English.     The  second  thing  to  be  done  is,  to  connect 

every-where  the  appearance  and  the  work  of  a  writer  with  the 

The  in-iter  social  condition  an(l  the  pohtical  events  of  the  age  in  which  he 

^  a  e        lived,  and  to  show  —  as  far  as  this  can  be  shown  to  a  young 

audience  —  how  these  influenced  the  character  and  the  feelings 
of  the  writer.  Nothing,  for  example,  can  be  clearer  or  more  easy  to  explain 
than  the  influence  of  the  two  opposite  views  of  poUtics  upon  the  writings 
of  the  two  contemporaries,  Milton  and  Butler. 

'J'he  standing  difficulty  and  perpetual  temptation  —  a  difficulty  with 
which  the  teacher  will  have  constantly  to  fight,  and  a  temptation  which 
Arhitrai-u  ^i^  will  have  at  every  moment  to  resist  —  is  to  present  to  his 
con-  pupils  conclusions  the  data  for  which  have  not  been  given,  and 
elusions,  critical  results  the  steps  to  which  have  never  been  taken  by  the 
pupils  themselves.  There  is  nothing  more  prejudicial  to  the  young 
mind  —  nothing  so  fatal  to  its  kindly  and  harmonious  growth,  as  the 
presence  within  it  of  ready-made  thoughts,  of  alien  ideas,  and  of  too  easily 
accepted  results.  The  pupil  may  seem  to  be  iu  possession  of  such  ideas 
and  conceptions,  but  he  is  not;  they  may  seem  to  be  the  fruit  of  his  own 
mind,  but  they  are  really  dead  artificial  apples  —  the  witnesses,  not  of  a 
vigorous,  spontaneous  life,  but  of  mental  poverty  and  death.  The  second- 
hand  is  the  deadly  foe  of  original  life. 

A  large  part  of  the  benefit  of  a  course  of  literature  will  be  lost  to  the 
pupils,  if  they  are  not  required,  always  and  cAcry-whcre,  to  react  with 

their  own  mind  upon  the  material  they  receive,  and  tlie  forms 
Proper    ^yj^j^jj  ^j^^y  g^j-g  ^gked  to  contemplate.     This  view  demands  that, 

accompanying  every  step  of  the  course,  there  should  be  a  well- 
selected  and  judiciously  chosen  set  of  exercises.  Such  exercises  might 
include  the  following: 

(1)  An  account  of  a  poem  stich  as  Chaucer's  Pro/or/^fi,  in  the  pupil's 
own  words,  —  always  avoiding  the  vile  practice  of  "paraphrasing."  {2)  A 
short  life  of  an  author,  from  memory.  (3)  An  abridgment  of  an  important 
chapter  from  some  prose  work.  (4)  The  turning  into  modern  J'^nglish  of  a 
pas-age  from  a  writer  of  the  1 1th  or  12th  century.  (5)  A  critical  comparison 
between  the  treatment  of  the  same  subject  by  two  different  writers.  (Thus 
Autumn  has  been  treated  both  by  Keats  and  Shelley;  the  JSHrjhtinrfale  by 
Milton,  Keats,  and  Matthew  Arnold;  the  Death  of  a  Friend  by  Spenser 


ESTHETIC  CULTURE  115 

—  in  his  Astrophel  —  and  by  SheUey  —  in  his  Adona'is;  an  Escape  by 
Shelley  —  in  his  Fugitives,  and  by  Campbell, in  his  Lord  Ull in' s Daughter.) 
(6)  The  discussion  of  separate  literary  dicta  —  like  the  following  by  Russell 
Lowell:  "  Style,  like  the  grace  of  perfect  breeding,  makes  itself  felt  by  the 
skill  with  which  it  effaces  itself,  and  masters  us  at  last  with  a  sense  of 
indescribable  completeness".  (This  might  be  at  first  discussed  in  the  class- 
room ;  and  then  the  line  of  argument  and  the  results  would  be  given  in 
the  form  of  an  essay  or  paper.)  (7)  The  story  of  a  play  of  Shakespeare. 
(8)  The  analysis  of  some  character  in  a  play.  There  are  many  others  v. Inch 
will  naturally  occur  to  the  teacher  in  the  course  of  his  work. 

The  steady  purpose  to  be  kept  in  view  in  this  instruction  is  to  deposit 
in  the  pupil's  mind  a  few  nuclei  of  thought,  and  to  collect  around  these 
nuclei  as  large  an  accretion  of  cognate  ideas  from  different 
"  '■'"'•  writers  and  from  different  ages  as  possible.  The  existence  of 
these  nuclei  will  enable  the  teacher  to  preserve  unity  in  his  teaching  • —  to 
link  together  his  lessons  with  bonds  of  "  natural  piety"';  and  thus  to  make 
the  thoughtful  child  the  father  of  the  wise  and  insti'ucted  man.  And,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  intellectual  training,  they  wiU  enable  him  to  keep  true 
to  the  central  principle  of  repetition  wittioid  monotony. 

The  study  of  English  literature  is  incomplete  unless  it  include  a  view 
of  the  works  of  American  authors,  by  whom  many  departments  of  the 
literature  of  the  English  language  have  been  greatly  enriched. 
wrUers^  Thus,  in  poetry,  the  chief  productions  of  Poe,  Whittier,  Long- 
fellow, "Willis,  Brj^ant,  etc.,  should  be  classified  and  criticised, 
and  comjiared  also  with  the  productions  of  English  poets  in  the  same 
departments.     In   history,   due  attention  should   be  given   to   Prescott, 
Hildreth,  Bancroft,  and  Motley;  and,  in  general  literature,  including  essays, 
fiction,  etc.,  Irving,  Poe,  Hawthorne,  Emerson,  Tuckermau,  Whipple,  and 
a  host  of  others,  claim  attention.     The  principles  and  methods  suggested 
in  regard  to  English  authors,  in  this  article,  are  equally  applicable  to  the 
American  hterature  of  the  English  language.    For  a  list  of  books  of  refer- 
ence, see  Ciidopcedia  of  Education. 

ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  Esthetics  (Gr.  a'ia^vTLK6g,  from  ma^avecdat, 
to  perceive),  the  science  which  treats  of  taste  and  its  object,  the  beautiful 
in  nature  and  art,  has  been  recognized,  since  the  middle  of  the 
s  e  ics.  2^g^  century,  as  an  independent  branch  of  philosophy.  Depend- 
ing, as  it  does,  upon  the  exercise  of  a  special  faculty  of  the  mind,  it  forms 
a  part  of  the  basis  of  a  complete  and  harmonious  education.  However 
well  the  intellect,  the  will,  or  the  conscience  of  an  individual  may  have 
been  trained,  if  esthetic  culture  is  wanting,  he  must  continue  rude  and 
unrefined;  and,  hence,  in  a  comparison  of  nations  which  are  esthetically 
cultivated  with  such  as  are  deficient  in  this  respect,  we  find  a  marked 
difference  in  the  degree  as  well  as  in  the  general  character  of  the  civilization 
which  they  respectively  present.  The  esthetic  element,  however,  cannot 
be  wholly  wanting.  Even  the  rudest  nations  or  the  most  barbarous  tribes 
manifest  delight  in  those  objects  which  satisfy  their  natural  sense  of  the 
beautiful.  Like  children,  they  feel  an  intense  fondness  for  showy  ornaments, 
uncouth  pictures  and  images,  harsh  and  discordant  music,  and  grotesque 
dances.  The  love  of  these  things  springs  from  the  esthetic  principle  in 
their  minds,  in  its  u.ncultivated  and  partly  undeveloped  condition.     Their 


116  ESTHETIC  CULTURE 

perceptions  of  the  beautiful  are,  like  their  thoiights  and  their  reasonings, 
processes  unregulated  and  misdirected.  They  have,  also,  the  moral  sense  — 
the  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  but  not  knowing  how  to  distinguish  right 
from  wrong,  they  often  conscientiously  perform  acts  which,  judged  by  a 
proper  standard  of  rectitude,  are  reprehensible  in  the  highest  degree;  for 
conscience  is  only  the  general  impression  that  a  distinction  between  right 
and  wrong  exists,  not  a  power  to  discriminate  between  specific  right  and 
wrong.  In  the  same  manner,  the  esthetic  principle  is  the  sense  by  which 
the  mind,  in  a  general  way,  distinguishes  between  what  is  beautiful  and 
what  is  ugly;  but  it  does  not  teach  specifically  what  objects  are  beautiful. 

Hence,  however  advanced  persons  may  be  in  esthetic  culture, 
^*  ^-  they  will  still  differ  to  some  extent  in  this  specific  discrimina- 
tion. This  difference  we  attribute  to  a  diversity  of  taste,  the  word  taste 
being  used  to  designate  the  esthetic  principle  or  faculty  of  the  mind.  We 
find,  also,  the  same  divei-sity  in  the  exercise  of  the  moral  sense,  in  the 
absence  of  a  settled  standard,  some  persons  regarding  as  worthy  of  approba- 
tion the  same  act  that  others  look  upon  as  decidedly  sinful. 

The  aim  of  esthetic  education  must,  therefore,  be  to  cultivate  the  sense 
of  the  beautiful,  /.  e.,  the  taste,  (1)  by  .showing  what  the  elements  of  beauty 

are,  and  thus  establishing  in  the  mind  a  proper  standard  of  the 
'eMhetlc  beautiful;  (2)  by  presenting  to  the  miud  simple  forms  of  beauty, 
culture.    ^^^  ^^^  purpo.se  of  illustrating  this  analysis  of  the  elements,  and 

also  iuipressing  them  deeply  upon  the  mind,  as  the  foundation 
of  esthetic  culture;  and  (o)  by  practice  in  criticism,  so  that  the  mind  may 
be  trained  to  judge  whether  in  any  complex  object,  either  of  nature  or  art, 
the  elementary  principles  of  beauty  are  present,  and  in  their  normal  or 
proper  combination.  'J'he  elements  of  beauty  are  to  be  sought  for  in  the 
constitution  of  the  human  mind;  and,  therefore,  our  knowledge  of  what 
they  are  and  how  they  are  to  be  combined  nuust  be  derived  from  experience 
and  observation,  upon  the  results  of  which  esthetics  as  a  science  must  be 
based.  The  educator  must,  antecedently  to  the  exercise  of  his  professional 
skill,  have  acquired  a  knovvledj^e  of  this,  just  as  the  teacher  of  mathematics 
or  of  physics  must  be  vensed  in  those  branches,  before  he  learns  how  to 
teach  them;  but  with  this  difference,  that  in  esthetic  culture,  it  is  the 
faculty  that  is  immediately  addrcsised,  the  primary  object  being  disciplinary; 
while  in  most  other  departments  of  instruction,  discipline  is  a  secondary 
object,  the  primary  aim  being  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  taught. 
'Jo  illustrate,  we  do  not.  in  elementary  schools,  teach  esthetics  as  such ;  but 
we  strive  to  cultivate  the  esthetic  faculty  by  instruction  in  drawing, 
painting,  music,  etc.  In  this  department  of  teaching,  the  practical  value 
of  the  subjects  themselves  is  a  consideration  of  great  importance,  but  the 
development  of  the  pupil's  taste  is  indispensable  to  any  true  progress,  and, 
therefore,  during  the  earlier  .stages  at  lea.st,  must  be  the  primary  aim  of 
the  educator.  AVlien  the  mind  has  become  enriched  with  varied  forms  of 
beauty,  the  mechanical  skill  will  soon  advance  to  the  degree  requisite  to 
give  them  expression.  'I'his  work  commences  in  the  kindergarten,  and  is 
Practical  continued  in  the  object  lessons  of  the  primary  school,  by  means 
s'ts-  of  varied  exercises  in  funn  or  color,  'i'he  most  rudimental 
gestions.  exercises  in  drawing  should  have  a  strict  reference  to  this 
principle;  that  is  to  say,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  delineate  not 


ETYMOLOGY  —  EXAMINATIONS  11 7 

uncouth  figures,  but  simple  forms  of  beauty.  The  hand  and  the  eye  may 
be  trained,  it  is  true,  by  practice  in  drawing  any  forms,  whether  beautiful 
or  not;  but  the  taste  is  to  be  developed  and  cultivated  as  well;  and, 
therefore,  only  such  forms  as  appeal  to  the  esthetic  sense  should  be.  at 
first,  presented.  The  elementary  forms  of  the  script  letters  are  illustrative 
of  the  esthetic  principle;  and,  hence,  writing  is  a  means  of  esthetic  culture. 
The  letters  themselves,  however,  being  complex  forms,  it  is  held  that 
rudimentary  drawing  should  precede  writing. 

Esthetics  is  not  only  concerned  in  the  beauty  of  forms;  it  embraces 

the  objects  of  every  bodily  sense,  and  also  of  what  may  be  called  the  inner 

Applica-    sense,  —  a  discriminative   consciousness    of  the    beautiful   in 

tioiis.      thought  and  action,  which  the  rhetorician,  the  poet,  and  the 

orator  recognize  and  address  in  their  several  spheres  of  activity.     That 

part  of  esthetics  which  depends  upon  the  objects  of  hearing  is  cultivated 

by  means  of  music,  which  is  the  expression  of  the  beautiful  in  sound.  The 

same  guiding  principle  is  applicable  to  instruction  in  this  as  to  the  teaching 

of  form.      Simple   melodious   combinations,   regular    and    beautiful    in 

themselves,  should  be  constantly  employed;  all  that  is  harsh  and  dissonant 

should  be  avoided.     The  beauty  of  composition,  that  is,  rhetorical  beauty, 

depending  upon  subtler  principles,  requires  a  more  careful  treatment  in 

education.     Habit  and  association,  however,  play  an   important  part  in 

this  branch  of  esthetic  culture;  and,  therefore,  the  child,  even  from  its 

earliest  years,  should  be  accustomed  to  hear  only  chaste,  pure  expressions; 

and  the  most  familiar  colloquialisms  should  be  entirely  free  from  what  is 

coarse  and  vulgar,  and  especially  from  slang.     The  esthetic  element  in 

poetry  cannot  be  addressed  until  an  advanced  stage  of  culture 

Poetry.    ^^^  \)QQn  reached.     Poetry  is  the  expression  of  the  beautiful  by 

means  of  words;  it  embraces  rhetorical  beauty,  and  the  beauty  of  thought 

and  action,  as  well  as  of  external  forms. 

ETYMOLOGY  (Gr.  hvuoloy'ia,  from  etv/jov,  the  true  meaning  of  a 
■word),  a  department  of  philological  science  which  explains  the  derivation 
of  words  and  their  literal  meaning.  This  is  historical  etymology.  (See 
English,  Study  of.)  The  term  eti/mology  is  also  applied  to  that  part  of 
grammar  which  relates  to  the  classification  of  words  as  parts  of  a  sentence, 
and  their  various  inflections,  used  to  indicate  their  relations  to  one  another, 
or  modifications  of  the  general  ideas  which  they  express.  This  is  gram- 
matical etymology.  (See  Grammar.)  Asa  branch  of  elementary  instruc- 
tion, it  teaches  the  component  parts  of  words, — root,  prefix,  and  suffix, 
and  by  explaining  the  primitive  meaning  of  these  parts  in  the  language 
from  which  they  are  derived,  shows  the  exact  literal  meaning  of  the  words. 
(See  Words,  ANAi.ysis  of.) 

EXAMINATIONS  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  educator's 
work  in  order  to  test  the  result  of  what  has  already  been  accomplished,  and 
to  incite  his  pupils  to  additional  efforts.  While  it  is  perfectly  true  that 
the  best  effects  of  educational  training  can  be  but  imperfectly,  if  at  all, 
tested  by  any  personal  examination;  yet,  there  is  no  other  ready  and  def- 
inite method  of  ascertaining  the  efficacy  of  the  teacher's  work  and  the  pro- 
ficiency of  the  student.  Examinations,  moreover,  are  of  great  educative 
value,  if  they  are  conducted  on  sound  principles.  The  judicious  examiner 
who  is  master  of  the  subject,  Avhile  ascertaining  what  the  student  has 


118  EXAMPLE  —  EXPULSION 

learned,  necessarily,  to  some  extent,  shows  him  what  he  has  failed  to  leam, 
either  in  consequence  of  an  imperfect  method  of  study  or  a  lack  of  atten- 
tion to  certain  important  parts  of  the  subject.  'J'hus  he  is  taught  how  to 
make  his  future  efforts  more  successful;  and, further,  by  coming  in  contact 
with  a  mind  more  mature  in  its  operations  and  attainments,  he  obtains 
views  of  the  subject  which  no  amount  of  study  of  his  own  could  impart. 
On  this  account,  examination  and  recitation  should  go  hand  in  hand,  the 
student  showing,  in  the  first  place,  what  he  has  learned  of  the  lesson  as- 
signed to  him,  and  the  teacher  then, by  skillful  examination, demonstrating 
to  him  his  ignorance  on  certain  points,  and  in  this  way  instructing  him  in 
such  things  as  may  be  beyond  the  grasp  of  his  unaided  research.  Exami- 
nations of  this  kind  form  an  indispensable  part  of  instruction  itself;  those 
which  occur  at  the  end  of  certain  periods,  either  for  promotion,  or  for 
graduation,  have  in  view  the  exclusive  aim  of  testing  the  actual  progress 
of  the  pupil.  Indirectly,  however,  such  examinations  being  anticipated 
by  the  student,  guide  and  stimulate  his  efforts,  both  in  acquiring  and  re- 
membering.—  See  Cydopcp.dia  of  Education. 

EXAMPLE,  the  Influence  of.  This  depends  upon  imitation  and 
sympathy,  two  principles  of  action  which  are  exceedingly  potent  in  the 
minds  of  all  persons,  but  particularly  in  tho.se  of  children.  Its  influence 
among  men  is  shown  by  the  existence  of  national  customs,  prejudices,  vices, 
fashions,  etc.,  and  by  the  use  of  language,  Avhicli  would  be  scarcely  possible 
without  the  force  of  imitation  or  example.  In  infancy  and  early  childhood, 
this  principle  is  the  almost  exclusive  means  of  education,  and  the  impres- 
sions which  it  makes  are  so  strong  and  durable,  that  they  are  hardly  ever 
obliterated  in  after  life.  Parents  very  rarely  appear  to  realize  that  they 
are,  by  a  kind  of  "  unconscious  tuition",  educating  their  children  simply 
by  what  they  .say  and  do  in  their  presence.  The  power  of  example  has  an 
important  application  in  the  education  of  the  intellect;  since,  in  giving  in- 
struction in  any  department  of  science  or  art,  the  illustrative  power  of  the 
teacher,  in  showing  to  the  pupil  what  it  is  desired  that  he  should  ac- 
complish, has  great  efficacy  in  stimulating  his  efforts,  and  more  especially 
in  fixing  in  his  mind  a  definite  standai-d  to  the  attainment  of  which  he 
may  direct  his  aim.  Indeed,  in  every  branch  of  instruction,  imitation  is 
one  of  the  most  important  principles  for  the  teacher  to  recognize  and  em- 
ploy. But  it  is  in  moral  education  that  the  force  of  example  has  its  chief 
sphere  of  activity.  In  it  is  comprehended  all  that  we  mean  by  the  personal 
influence  of  the  instructor.  His  manners,  his  modes  of  action  and  .speech, 
the  expression  of  his  countenance,  and  the  tones  of  his  voice,  all  are  con- 
stituent elements  of  this  influence.  This  personal  power,  it  has  been  well 
said,  is  an  "  emanation  flowing  from  the  very  spirit  of  the  teacher's  own 
life,  as  well  as  an  influence  acting  insensibly  to  form  the  life  of  the  scholar". 
—  See  Uiicjyu9.viouf,  Tuition,  by  Prof.  Huntington. 

EXPULSION  is  often  resorted  to  in  schools  in  the  case  of  pupils 
who,  by  their  willfulness,  insubordination,  reckless  and  disorderly  conduct, 
or  general  dejiravity.  cease  to  be  amenable  to  the  ordinary  regulations  of 
the  school,  or  are  likely  to  contaminate  the  manners  and  morals  of  the  other 
pupils.  It  is  an  extreme  measure,  which,  in  public  schools,  should  not  be 
taken  until  all  other  proper  means  to  control  the  pupils  have  been  employed; 
because  it  generally  deprives  these  pupils  of  all  opportunity  of  receiving 


EYE  110 

the  education  for  which  the  laws  of  the  state  provide.  Two  circumstances 
can  alone  justify  it:  (1)  That  the  pupil  is  utterly  uncontrollable  by  any  of 
the  ordinary  means  of  school  government ;  (2)  "1  hat  the  depraved  character 
of  the  pupil  is  such  as  to  imperil  the  welfare  of  the  other  pupils.  Expul- 
sion, in  some  places,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  corporal  punishment;  but 
the  propriety  of  this  has  been  called  in  question.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  expulsion  of  incorrigible  pupils  must  be  occasionally  necessary  under 
all  circum.^tances,  it  would  appear  that  a  reformatory  institution  constitutes 
an  essential  part  of  every  public-school  system . 

EYE,  Cultivation  of  the.  The  sense  of  sight  is  capable  of  an  al- 
most incredible  improvement  by  culture;  of  this,  modern  scientific  in- 
vestigatious  leave  no  doubt.  We  see  improvement  in  this 
of^'ultre  respect  not  only  in  individuals  but  in  the  general  visual  capacity 
of  whole  nations.  There  can  be  no  question,  for  example,  that, 
3,000  years  ago,  when  the  civilization  of  the  Chinese  came  to  a  stand-still, 
they  were  very  deficient  in  the  power  of  seeing  perspectively;  so  that,  in 
spite  of  all  their  skill  in  drawing  and  painting,  their  pictures  show  all  ob- 
jects on  the  same  plane,  without  any  variation  of  size,  or  of  light  and  shade, 
in  order  to  represent  the  distances  and  relative  positions  of  the  objects  de- 
picted. Many  proofs  might  be  adduced  to  show  that,  in  the  course  of 
centuries,  the  human  eye  has  improved  in  power.  The  aim  of  education 
in  this  respect  is  twofold:  (1)  To  improve  the  physiological  conditions  of 
sight,  by  removing  any  causes  of  a  morbid  state,  or  by  strengthening  the 
physical .  organ  of  vision;  (2)  To  cultivate,  by  judicious  practice,  the  sense 
of  sight,  so  as  to  render  it  more  observant,  and  able  to  receive  more  full 
and  accurate  impressions  of  the  objects  which  pass  before  it.  This  is  of 
special  importance,  as  of  all  the  senses  that  of  sight  is,  without  doubt,  the 
most  far  reaching,  and  leads  to  the  most  numerous  and  vivid  conceptions. 

The  cultivation  of  the  eye  should  begin  soon  after  birth,  and,  for  a  few 
weeks,  should  be  confined  to  keeping  the  infant  from  aU  excessive  glare 
of  light;  but,  at  the  same  time,  allowing  it  sufficient  light 
commence  Properly  to  excite  the  nervous  activity.  Children,  like  plants, 
"  need  a  great  deal  of  sunlight,  which,  provided  it  is  not  dazzling, 
is  the  most  important  agent  of  both  bodily  and  mental  growth.  At  the 
first,  it  should  be  a  reflected,  diffused,  and  mild  light,  direct  sunlight  being 
admitted  only  after  several  weeks,  and  then  gradually.  Weak  eyes  may 
also  be  caused  by  surroundings  of  but  one  color,  particularly  if 
Methods,  (jgcj^jg^jiy  brilhant.  Hence,  it  is  well  to  relieve  the  impression 
made  by  a  single  color,  by  alternation  with  its  complementary.  Red  or 
blue  curtains  should  be  never  allowed  continuously  to  throw  their  tinge  upon 
the  infant's  eye;  but,  as  a  rule,  subdued  colors  should  be  preferred.  The 
power  of  distinguishing  both  outlines  and  shades  of  color  is  susceptible  of 
cultivation  by  means  of  the  slow  movement  of  bodies  of  different  hues 
before  the  child's  eyes.  This  is  an  e^iercise  which  is  employed  in  Froebel's 
nursery  education,  and  is  very  properly  accompanied  by  singing,  because 
the  sense  of  hearing,  having  an  earlier  development,  is  well  adapted  to 
excite  the  action  of  sight.  After  the  second  or  third  month,  when  the 
infant  can  wield  its  hands  and  arms,  the  sense  of  touch  should  be  called 
into  activity  in  order  to  correct  the  impressions  made  on  the  eye. 
Various  contrivances  may  be  resorted  to  for  this  purpose,  among  them 


120  EYE 

the  suspended  wooden  globe  and  colored  balls  which  Froebel  suggests 
for  use  at  tliis  stage  of  education.  As  the  child  learns  the  meaning 
of  simple  language  fully  one  or  two  years  before  it  is  able  to  repeat 
the  words,  it  is  safe  to  let  it  hear  the  names  of  the  things  which  it 
sees  and  handles,  but  always  in  connection  with  the  objects  themselves. 
Thus  language  fixes,  at  the  age  of  infancy,  the  various  impressions  of 
the  senses,  which  impart  a  definite  meaning  to  every  word,  and  thus 
secure  the  proper  expressions  when  the  child  begins  to  speak.  When 
language  has  been  acquired  to  some  extent,  the  teacher  should,  by  means 
of  skillful  questioning,  attract  the  child's  attention  to  those  visible 
properties  and  peculiarities  of  things  which,  Avithout  a  trained  observa- 
tion, are  generally  passed  by  without  notice.  It  is  surprising  how  much 
may  bo  instantaneously  perceived  by  a  trained  eye,  and  how  delicate 
and  far-reaching  the  sense  of  sight  may  become,  under  circumstances 
requiring  its  constant  exercise.  Thus  the  practiced  astronomer  is  able 
to  notice  the  most  minute  points  of  light,  which  the  ordinary  observer 
utterly  fails  to  detect.  On  the  other  hand,  the  eye  is,  of  all  our  organs  of 
sense-perception,  the  most  delusive  if  it  is  permitted  habitually  to  gaze  at 
objects  without  any  comprehensive  or  discriminative  view  of  their  pecu- 
liarities and  less  obvious  details.  It  is  on  this  account,  that  Froebel 
invented  that  well-arranged  system  of  kindergarten  occupations,  by  which 
the  free  self-activity  of  the  child,  stimulated  by  agreeable  intercourse  with 
those  of  his  own  age,  learns  how  to  employ  his  sense  of  sight  in  an  endless 
variety  of  pleasurable  work,  that  never  ceases  to  educate  both  mentally  and 
morally.     (See  Klndeuoartkn,  and  Object  'I'eachixg.) 

Without  any  special  or  technical  aid,  the  teacher  may  readily  discover 
whether  any  of  his  pupils  are  color-blind,  by  a  proper  use  of  color-charts 
or  color-tablets.  Every  child  that  cannot  select  from  among 
hv'^ll^'e's  ^^^  tablets  the  exact  color  which  is  pointed  out  on  the  chart  is, 
of  course,  more  or  less  color-blind,  and  .should  have  the  benefit 
of  frequent  exercises  with  (1)  the  three  primary  colors,  and  (2)  with  their 
double  and  triple  combinations.  By  using  very  strong  and  brilliant  colors 
alternately  with  those  complementary  to  them,  this  kind  of  defect  in  sight 
may  be,  in  part  at  least,  removed.    (See  Coi,or.) 

Teachers  should  not  permit  their  pupils  to  stoop  while  engaged  in  read- 
ing, writing,  or  drawing;  since  this  tends  to  injure  the  sight.     It  is  also 
.       advisable  to  accustom  the  pupils  to  use  their  eyes  at  changing 
Caution,  (jigtiinces  of  the   object   with   an   equal  degree  of  perfection, 
especially  in  reading,  writing,  and  drawing.     Then,  if  the  eye  be  tired  at 
a  given  angle  of  sight,  it  may  continue  its  work,  without  injury  or  discom- 
fort, at  a  smaller  or  larger  angle,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  do  more  work 
without  detriment  to  the  sight.     Many  of  the  ordinary  school  arrange- 
ments are  more  or  less  injurious  to  the  organ  of  sight.     "  Short-sighted- 
ness", says  Ijiebreich  (School  Life  hi  its  Influence  on  Sight,  London,  1872), 
Short-      "  is  developed  almost  exclusively  during  school  life;  rarely  after- 
sUjhted-    wards,  and  very  rarely  before  that  time.    Is  this  coincidence  of 
ness.      time  accidental,  —  /.  e.,does  the  short-sightedness  arise  at  the 
period  at  which  children  go  to  school,   or  has  school  life    caused    the 
short-sightedness  ?     Statistical  intpiiries  prove  the  latter  to  be  the  case,  and 
have  shown,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  percentage  of  short-sighted  children 


FACULTY—  FEAR  121 

is  greater  in  schools  where  unfavorable  optical  conditions  prevail".  There 
are,  according  to  this  writer,  three  changes  in  the  functions  of  the  eye, 

which  are  immediately  developed  under  the  influence  of  school 

Effects     jifg.    (]^    Decrease   of  the  range  of  vision  —  short-sightedness 

llfe°°    (''^yopia),  (2)  Decrease  of  the  acuteness  of  vision  (amblyopia), 

and  (3)  Decrease  of  the  endurance  of  vision  ((7.sf^.e?iopia^.  These 
are  chiefly  caused  by  such  arrangements  as  afford  either  insufficient  light, 
or  admit  it  in  an  improper  manner.  The  following  is  an  important  practical 
direction  in  this  respect:  "  The  light  must  be  sufficiently  strong,  and  must 
fall  on  the  table  from  the  left-hand  side,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  from  above. 
The  children  ought  to  sit  straight,  and  not  have  the  book  nearer  to  the  eye 
thau  ten  inches  at  the  least.  Besides  this,  the  book  ought  to  be  raised  20° 
for  writing,  and  about  40*^  for  reading.  —  See  Fahrner,  TJie  Child  and 
the  Desk.  (See  Hygiene,  School,  and  Senses,  Education  of.)  See  also 
Tear-Book  of  Education  for  1878,  art.  Hygiene. 

FACULTY  ij.&t.facultas),  a  terra  originally  applied  to  a  body  of  men 
to  whom  any  particular  privilege  or  right  is  granted;  hence,  in  a  college 
or  university,  the  faculty  consists  of  those  upon  whom  has  been  conferred 
the  right  of  teaching  as  professors  of  specific  subjects  (facultas  pmfiiendi  et 
docendi.)  The  faculties  of  a  university  are  subordinate  corporations,  each 
consisting  of  a  body  of  teachers,  or  professors,  in  some  particular  depart- 
ment of  knowledge.  At  first  the  European  university  (that  of  Paris) 
comprised  but  two  faculties,  —  that  of  arts  (q.  v.)  and  that  of  theology,  to 
which,  in  the  13th  century,  those  of  canon  and  civil  law  and  of  medi- 
cine were  added.  The  division  into  four  faculties  was  transferred  from 
the  University  of  Pan's  to  the  German  universities;  the  faculty  of  arts  was 
afterwards  named  the  philosophical  faculty.  Many  changes  have  been  intro- 
duced in  this  part  of  university  organization  since  that  time.  In  American 
universities  and  colleges,  the  faculty  consists  of  the  body  of  professors, 
witJi  the  president  at  its  head,  and  has  the  power  of  conferring  degrees. 

FAGGING,  a  peculiar  custom  which  has  existed,  from  the  earliest 
times,  in  the  great  public  schools  of  England  —  Eton,  Harrow,  Rugby,  etc., 
according  to  which  boys  of  the  lower  forms  (classes)  perform  certain  per- 
sonal services,  for  those  of  the  higher.  These  services  are  either  due  to  a 
particular  student — the  special  master  ^ — or  to  the  whole  higher  class. 
The  former  are  such  as  carrying  the  master's  messages,  preparing  his  break- 
fast, waiting  upon  him  at  dinner,  stoking  his  fire,  etc.;  and  the  general 
duties  are  to  attend  at  the  games,  in  cricket,  for  example,  standing  behind 
the  wickets  to  catch  the  balls,  and  otlier  such  minor  services.  While 
many  of  these  services  appear  to  be  of  a  menial  character,  they  are  not  con- 
sidered such,  inasmuch  as,  without  a  fag,  the  boy  would  be  obliged  to  per- 
form them  for  himself.  The  system  of  fagging,  like  pennalism,  in  the 
German  universities,  has  been  the  means  of  great  abuse  and  tyranny  exer- 
cised upon  the  younger  students,  yet  it  has  strenuous  defenders,  as  being, 
on  the  whole,  beneficial. 

FEAR,  a  sense  of  danger,  the  apprehension  of  coming  injury,  or  the 
anticipation  of  pain,  is  an  emotion  of  the  mind  which  the  educator  often 
finds  it  necessary  to  excite,  in  order  to  control  the  actions  of  his  pupil,  but 
which  he  should  address  with  extreme  care  and  only  after  other  means  of 


122  FEAR 

persuasion  have  failed.     Tlierc  arc  two  kinds  of  government,  —  that  of 
influence  and  that  of  force;  and  the  former  should  always' be  preferred  to 
the  latter,  because  it  addresses  the  inner  nature  and  produces  a 
Ebrn      permanent  effect  upon  the  character,  Mhile  the  latter  can  be  only 
emploifed  temporary.    By  the  one,  the  will  of  a  child  is  trained,  and  a  self- 
controlling  power  is  fixed  in  the  mind;  by  the  other  the  mis- 
directed, perverted  will  is  still  left  a  prey  to  vicious  propensities,  the  oper- 
ation of  \\  Iiich  is  checked  only  as  long  as  the  external  restraint  continues. 
Some  dispositions,  however,  need  to  be  restrained  by  a  sense  of  fear  before 
other  influences  can  be  brought  to  bear  upon  them.     Many  children  are 
inconsilerate,  rash,  and  impulsive,  and  accordingly  yield  at  once  to  their 
propensities.    Physical  punishment  seems  to  be  needed  in  order  to  produce 
any  conscientious  observation  of  their  own  conduct;  but,  without  great 
care  on  the  part  of  the  educator,  in  inflicting  pain  for  this  purpose,  much 
injury  may  be  done  to  the  child.     Unless  the  educator's  personality  in  this 
infliction  can  be  subordinated,  in  the  child's  mind,  to  the  sense  of  deserved 
punishment  for  wrong-doing,  he  will  antagonize  the  child,  and  destroy  all 
means  of  controlling  him  by  personal  influence.     "  The  moment  a  child's 
mind  is  strongly  affected  by  fear",  says  Horace  ]\Iann,  "  it  flies 
tear       i^'^tinctively  away,  and  hides  itself  in  the  deepest  recesses  it  can 
find,  —  often  in  the  recesses  of  disingenuousness  and  perfidy  and 
falsehood.     Instead  of  exhibiting  to  you  his  whole  consciousness,  he  con- 
ceals from  you  as  much  of  it  as  he  can;  or  he  deceptively  presents  to  you 
Bome  counterfeit  of  it,  instead  of  the  genuine.     No  frighted  water-fowl 
whose  plumage  the  bullet  of  the  sportsman  has  just  grazed,  dives  quicker 
beneath  the  surface  than  a  child's  spirit  darts  from  your  eye  when  you  have 
filled  it  with  the  sentiments  of  fear".     This  is  especially  true  of  certain 
dispositions;  and,  hence,  this  appeal  to  fear  should  not  he  made  without 
very  careful  discrimination.     Hecker,  in  the  Scientific  Basis  of  Education 
(X.  Y.,  18G8),says,  "If  caiitioiistiess  is  too  large,  seek  to  influence  the 
child  through  his  affections.     Fear  will  paralyze  such  a  mind.     To  make 
this  faculty  useful  where  it  is  predominant,  tlie  teacher  must  get  the  affec- 
tions of  the  child,  and  he  can  then,  by  proper  direction,  make  fear  an  in- 
telligent restraint".     Xo  school  government  can  be  approved  that  is  not 
intended  to  amend  as  well  as  to  control.     Children  should  be  made  to 
fear  to  do  wrong;  and  this  should  be  brought  about  as  much  as 
possible  by  what   ITerbert  Spencer  calls  the  melliod  of  iiatxire, 
that  is,  by  making  punishment  the  necessary  consequence  of  the 
wrongful  act,  on  the  principle  involved  in  the  maxim,  "The  burnt  child 
dreads  the  fire".    This  eliminates  the  personal  element  in  the  fear  implanted 
in  the  mind  of  the  child.     He  does  not  fear  the  teacher,  but  he  fears  to 
offend,  —  to  do  wrong.     The  same  consideration  excludes  from  discipline 
all  threatening,  scolding,  and  harsh  words,  for  the  purpose  of  engendering 
fear,  and,  especially  excludes  anger  in  punishment.     The  fear  to  be  excited 
in  the  mind  of  the  child  should  not  be  an  apprehension  of  personal  safety, 
leading  to  meanness,  cunning,  and  deception  as  a  means  of  self-protection, 
but  should  be  akin  to  that  feeling  which  Solomon  referred  to  when  he  said, 
"The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom".     This  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  a  constant  appeal  to  the  higher  motives  and  finer  feelings  of 
human  nature,  but  may  be  made  a  means  of  their  development. 


Fear  to  do 
wrong. 


FEMALE  EDUCATION  123 

FEMALE  EDTJCATIOIT.     This  is  a  subject  which,  especially  in 

recent  years,  has  very  greatly  engaged  the  attention  of  practical  educators, 

scientific  educationists,  physicians,  and  all  others  who  have  either 

Impor-     -v^'ritten  or  spoken  on  questions  concerning  the  present  condition 

tfie^ubiect  ^^^  future  prospects  of  human  society  and  human  welfare.   The 

'  proper  education  of  woman  has  been  recognized  as  an  important, 

perhaps  the  chief,  factor  of  social  progress.     In  ancient  times,  woman  in 

general,  occupied  a  secluded  state;    and  it  was  only  in  the  privacy  of  the 

home  circle  that  she  exerted  the  potent  influence  inseparable  from  her  sex, 

whether  as  daughter,  wife,  or  mother.    The  Roman  matron,  within  this 

narrow  limit,  was  an  educator  of  her  daughters  always,  and  Gometimes 

partly  of  her  sons,  as  in  the  case  of  Cornelia,  illustrious  as  the  "  mother 

of   the  Gracchi"'. 

History  affords  many  examples  of  women  who,  breaking  through  the 
barriers  of  social  custom,  became  illustrious  for  their  learning  and  elo- 
quence. Such  were  Aspasia  of  Athens,  and  Hypatia  of  Alexandria.  The 
career  of  such  women  illustrated  the  intellectual  capacity  of  their  sex 
under  circumstances  permitting  or  encouraging  its  culture.  Female  educa- 
Education  ^^^^'  liow'ever,  has  always  been  viewed  as  radically  distinct  from 
of  males    that   of  males,  —  as  presenting  entirely   different  aims,  and 

and  requiring  different  processes  of  training  and  instruction,  and  a 
females,  -^^ri^ely  different  curriculum  of  study.  Much  has  been  said  and 
done  in  recent  years  to  modify  very  greatly  this  view;  but  it  is  stiU  gener- 
ally entertained,  and  is,  at  the  present  time,  the  principle  on  which  most 
schemes  for  the  education  of  females  are  based.  "A  system  of  education", 
says  Maudsley,  "  adapted  to  women  should  have  regard  to  the  peculiarities 
of  their  constitution,  to  the  special  function  in  life  for  which  they  are 
destined,  and  to  the  range  and  kind  of  practical  activity,  mental  and  bodily, 
to  which  they  would  seem  foreshadowed  by  their  sexual  organization  of 
body  and  mind".  "  From  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  year",  says  Schwarz, 
"  the  two  sexes  require,  in  almost  every  respect,  a  different  education". 
"  The  culture  of  girls",  says  Von  Raumer,  "commonly  requires  a  process  of 
instruction  entirely  different  from  that  of  boys".  Alonzo  Potter,  in  the 
School  and  the  Schoolmaster  (N.  Y.,  1842),  emphasizes  this  principle,  and 
argues  that  "  there  should  be,  in  the  education  of  females,  a  special  refer- 
ence to  their  sex  and  condition  of  life".  "The  best  educational  training 
for  a  boy",  says  Dr.  Clarke,  in  Sex  in  Education  (Boston,  1873),  "is  not 
the  best  for  a  girl,  nor  that  for  a  girl  best  for  a  boy".  Such  are  the  views 
upon  which  the  education  of  females  has  been  based.  Arranged,  as  it  has 
been  by  the  other  sex,  the  only  considerations  that  have  dictated  its  meth- 
ods and  processes  have  been  the  average  physical  weakness  of  women  as 
compared  with  men,  and  the  accomplishments  they  might  need  as  wives 
and  matrons.  It  is  not  difficult  to  perceive  that  were  the  education  of 
men  arranged  by  the  other  sex  from  an  analogous  stand-point,  it  would 
also  be  narrowed  in  its  scope  and  processes.  During  the  last  few  years, 
the  questions  pertaining  to  female  education  have  been  vigorously  discussed 
by  writers  of  both  sexes;  and  much  experience  has  been  gathered,  which 
appears  to  show  that  the  necessity  for  a  modified  system  of  education  for 
females  is  by  no  means  so  great  as  has  been  supposed  and  asserted.  See 
Cyclopoedia  of  Education. 


124  t'lCTION 

FICTION,  Works  of,  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  literature 
used  in  the  education  of  children.  The  young  mind  delights  in  interesting 
tales,  and  receives  imj^ressions  therefrom,  deeper  and  more  durable  perhaps 

than  those  derived  from  any  other  source.  AVhile  it  instinctively 
Use  m      perceives  what  is  fictitious  in  the  scenes  and  incidents  of  the 

story,  it  imbibes  as  true  the  characters  of  the  personages  and 
their  relations;  that  is,  it  feels  that  such  characters  and  relations  may, 
possibly  or  actually,  exist  in  real  life. 

By  means  of  suitable  works  of  fiction,  the  minds  of  children  and  youth 
may  be  cultivated  in  several  respects;  (1)  IJy  imparting  vivid  conceptions 
of  persons  and  things;  (2)  By  impressing  upon  them  sentiments  of  virtue, 
courage,  and  patriotism;  (3)  By  developing  and  training  the  imagination 
and  the  taste.  Such  were  the  reasons  which  prompted  Fenelon  to  write 
Telemaque,  and  probably  Xenophon  in  the  composition  of  the  Ci/ropcedia; 
and  this  office  of  fiction  as  a  vehicle  of  instruction  and  moral  elevation  has 
been  recognized  by  most,  if  not  all,  great  educators.  Pestalozzi  selected 
it  as  the  most  effective  means  of  reaching  the  popular  mind.  In  his 
Leonard  and  Gertrude  (1784),  he   laid   the    foundation   for  a  national 

pedagogical  literature.  'I'here  are,  however,  dangers  to  be  avoided 
Bangers.  ^^  using  fiction  as  an  educational  agent,  which  we  may  thus 
l)riefly  summarize:  (1)  By  its  exciting  character,  it  may  so  occupy  or 
intoxicate  the  mind,  as  to  destroy  the  taste  for  more  solid  and  useful 
reading.  Such  is  uniformly  the  result  of  permitting  children  to  read  the 
wild,  romantic,  and  startling  stories,  with  which  some  of  the  juvenile 
l)eriodicals  of  the  day  are  filled.  The  constant  perusal  of  such  narratives 
is  baneful;  like  ardent  spirits,  it  intoxicates  but  does  not  nourish.  (2)  In 
the  case  of  narratives  which  present  instances  of  suffering,  the  sympathies 
are  expended  upon  fictitious  objects,  and  pity  thus  becomes  habitually  a 
mere  sentiment,  instead  of  prompting  to  active  beneficence.  "  In  the 
healthy  state  of  the  moral  feelings",  says  Abercrombie,  "  the  emotion  of 
sympathy  excited  by  a  tale  of  sorrow  ought  to  be  followed  l)y  some  efforts 
for  the  relief  of  the  sufferer.  "When  such  relations  in  real  life  are  listened 
to  from  time  to  time  without  any  such  efforts,  the  emotion  gradually 
becomes  weakened,  and  that  moral  condition  is  produced  which  we  call 
selfishness,  or  hardness  of  heart".  (3)  By  presenting  to  tlie  young  mind 
fictitious  scenes  of  immorality,  vice,  or  crime,  it  becomes  familiar  with  their 
associations,  and  is  thus  depraved.  (4)  By  impressing  upon  the  mind  f.-ilse 
conceptions  of  the  enjoyments,  duties,  and  objects  of  life,  it  may  be  the 
means  of  producing  a  kind  of  infatuation,  unfitting  for  every  sphere  of 
useful  employment.  Johnson,  in  Rasselas,  well  describes  this  mental 
condition:  "'l"he  mind  dances  from  scene  to  scene,  unites  all  pleasures 
in  all  combinations,  and  riots  in  delights  which  nature  and  fortune, 
with  all  their  bounty,  cannot  bestow.  In  time,  some  particular  train 
of  ideas  fixes  the  attention;  all  other  intellectual  gratifications  are  re- 
jected; the  mind,  in  weariness  or  leisure,  recurs  constantly  to  the  favorite 
conception,  and  fe;ists  on  the  luscious  falsehood  whenever  she  is  offended 
with  the  bitterness  of  truth.  By  degrees  the  reign  of  fancy  is  confirmed; 
she  grows  imperious,  and  in  time  despotic.  Then  fictions  begin  to  operate 
as  realities,  false  opinions  fasten  iipon  the  mind,  and  life  passes  in  dreams 
of  rapture  or  of  anguish".     (See  Imagination,  Culture  or.) 


FORM  125 

FORM,  one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  object  teaching,  since, 
from  the  first  dawn  of  intellect,  the  endless  variety  of  forms  presented  to 

the  child's  sight  constitutes  perhaps  the  most  effective  means  of 

Why  an    awakening   and   exercising  its  perceptive  facnlties.     'J'he  first 

important  comparison  which  the  young  child  makes  between  the  objects  of 

its  perception  must  be  based  upon  their  resemblances,  the  con- 
scious perception  of  differences  occurring  somewhat  later.  This  arises  from 
its  need  of  forming  general  ideas  as  preliminary  to  the  exercise  of  its  think- 
ing powers.  The  diversity  of  forms,  like  that  of  color,  as  seen  by  the  child, 
very  greatly  interests  it  and  attracts  its  attention;  and,  hence,  when  formal 
education  begins,  the  child  has  already  accumulated  in  its  mind,  in  a  rude 
and  indefinite  way,  many  materials  which  the  expert  teacher  will  use,  in 
guiding  his  pupil  to  more  exact  knowledge.  The  untaught  child's  vocabu- 
lary of  terms  to  denote  the  various  forms  which  it  has  seen  is  very  meager; 
and,  hence,  its  conceptions  are  too  indefinite  to  form  the  materials  for 
conscious  thought.  They  are,  as  it  were,  only  embiyotic  thoughts,  to  be 
developed  by  the  power  of  language.  Hence,  an  important  office  of  tho 
instructor  is  to  teach  the  proper  term,  or  word,  by  which  each  particular 
object  of  the  child's  attention  is  to  be  designated,  and  in  this  way  clearly 
individualized.  For  example,  a  young  child  intuitively  perceives  the  dif- 
ference between  the  form  of  a  round  object  and  a  square  one;  but  before 
the  terms  round  and  s^ware  have  been  learned  as  the  names  of  these  forms, 
they  cannot  be  used  by  the  mind  in  any  process  of  thought.  Besides,  the 
young  mind,  in  the  exercise  of  its  unaided  powers,  is  chiefly  occupied  with 
the  observation  of  resemblances  and  analogies,  and  only  after  the  guidance 
of  the  teacher,  comes  to  recognize  clearly  points  of  difference,  the  sense  of 
analogy,  as  it  has  been  called,  taking  the  lead  in  the  first  stages  of  mental 
development. 

In  making  use  oifurm  as  a  basis  for  training  the  observing  faculties 
the  teacher  should  be  guided  by  the  following  principles:  (i)  Resemblances 

are  perceived  before  differences;  (2)  The  concrete  precedes  the 
Guiding  abstract;  (3)  Every  object  is  perceived  as  a  Avhole  before  its 
pnncip  s.  cQjj^pQjjgj^^,  parts  are  noticed;  (4)  Every  idea  must  have  its 
proper  verbal  designation  to  be  clearly  and  permanently  fixed  in  the  mind. 
The  teacher  should,  therefore,  begin  with  simple  regular  forms,  such  as  tho 
cube,  prism,  parallelepiped,  pyramid,  sphere,  cone,  and  cylinder.     These, 

at  first,  should  be  all  alike  in  material  and  color,  and  about  the 
Processes,  gj^j-j^g  j^  gj^e,  so  that  the  teacher  may  clearly  develop  the  idea  of 
form,  as  the  rudimental  step  in  the  instruction.  At  first  the  process 
should  be  very  slow.  Thus  the  teacher  holds  up  to  the  view  of  the  pujjils 
a  cubical  block  of  wood  [one  of  the  box  of  solids  usually  emploj^ed  in  such 
lessons] ,  and  asks,  "  What  is  this  ?''  And  the  children  probably  reply,  "  A 
piece  of  wood".  Then  the  teacher  presents  successively  the  sphere,  cone, 
cylinder,  etc.,  asking  the  same  question  and  obtaining  the  same  answer. 
The  teacher  then  says,  "Each  of  these  is  a  piece  of  wood;  are  they  all 
alike?"  To  which  the  children  answer,  "No".  "Do  they  differ  in  color?'' 
"No".  "In  size?"  "No".  This  leads  the  teacher  to  show,  in  a  very 
general  way,  not  by  giving  names  at  first,  but  by  directing  the  pupils'  at- 
tention, that  the  objects  differ  inform;  that  is,  each  has  its  own  peculiar 
form.     The  teacher  may  then  go  back  to  the  cube,  and  ask  the  pupils  to 


126  FRENCH  LANGUAGE 

mention  any  other  things  they  have  seen  whicli  have  the  same  form  as  the 
bloek  of  wood;  and  so  on  with  the  other  forms.  This  exercise  beinga  per- 
featly  natural  one  will  awaken  interest,  besides  familiarizing  the  children 
with  the  particular  forms  presented.  The  next  step  will  be  to  lead  the 
children  to  observe  the  points  of  difference  between  the.se  forms;  and,  in 
order  to  do  this,  the  analytic  process  must  begin.  Thus,  the  teacher  devel- 
ops the  idea  of  side  or  facs,  and  the  pupils  perceive  that  the  cube  has  six 
fa:es;  the  elg's,  corners,  and  equaliti/  of/aces  and  edges  ma,j  then  be  ob- 
served. When  the  pupil  has  perceived  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the 
form,  its  name,  as  cube,  prism,  etc.,  may  be  taught.  This  method  requires 
th3  teacher  to  bsgin  with  solids  (as  the  concrete)  and  to  deduce  from  the 
observation  of  them,  the  ideas  of  surface,  line,  and  point  (as  the  abstract), 
in  accordance  with  the  principle  (2).  After  these  ideas  have  been  thus 
developed,  and  tlie  method  of  representing  lines  and  figures  on  the  black- 
Variei    board  shown  to  the  pupil,  he  is  prepared  for  varied  slate  and 

exercises,  blackboard  exercises  on  the  positions  and  combinations  of  lines 
both  straight  and  curved,  to  be  followed  by  similar  exercises  on  plane 
figures.  The  study  oi  form  thus  passes  into  that  of  drairing,  in  connec- 
tion with  which  inventiv'e  exercises  of  a  simple  character  maybe  employed, 
the  children  being  shown  how  to  combine  lines  and  figures  into  simple  pat- 
terns or  designs.  Of  a  similar  but  more  elementary  character  are  block 
combinations,  which  will  serve  to  interest  and  instruct  very  young  children. 
Boxes  of  blocks  made  for  this  purpose,  with  designs  for  construction,  can 
be  readily  obtained.  Charts  containing  diagrams  of  plane  figures  will  also 
be  found  very  useful  in  giving  lessons  on  form.  These  lessons  should  be 
systematic,  not  desultory,  but  regularly  arranged,  with  the  underlying 
principle  kept  steadily  in  view.  Especially  should  the  teacher  guard  against 
requiring  the  pupils  to  commit  to  memory  formal  geometrical  definitions, 
the  chief  point  to  b^  attained  being  the  discijiline  of  the  okserving  faculties. 
FRE^VCH  LA.NGrUAGE.  'I'he  French  language  is  univei-sally  recog- 
nized as  Stan  ling,  with  the  English  and  German,  at  the  head  of  the  lan- 
guages of  the  civilized  world.  Wherever  a  knowledge  of  any  other 

Place  in  ^]^^^-^  (.jjg  native  language  is  valued.  French  always  has  its  claims 

■  considered.  Hence,  in  the  schools  of  the  English-speaking  world, 

it  usually  occupies,  with  the  German  language,  a  place  in  the  course  of  study. 

Instruction  in  French,  as  in  every  other  foreign   language,  begins  with 

the  acquisition  of  a  correct  pronunciation.     Next  to  English,  French  is 

the   least   phonetic   of   all    languages;   and.  therefore,  a  large 

Methols.  nm-ni-i^r  of  rules  must  l)e  learned  before  the  pupil  is  able  to 
pronounce  ordinary  words.  It  is  important  that  this  pronunciation 
should  bo  learned,  partly  at  least,  by  means  of  an  imitation  of  the 
teacher's  pronunciation.  Memorizing  lessons,  before  the  correct  pronuncia- 
tion has  been  acquired  is  positively  injurious.  The  French  grammar  offers 
but  few  pecidiaritios  and  difficulties.  The  absence  of  case-endings  and 
of  many  other  inflections,  and  the  paucity  of  simple  ten.ses  and  of 
changes  in  the  radical  part  of  irregular  verbs,  facilitate  the  reading  of 
a  French  author  at  a  very  enrly  stage  of  in.struction.  The  chief  peculiar- 
ities, such  as  the  interrogative  and  negative  form  of  sentences,  ought 
to  be  frequently  practiced.  Attention  should  be  called  to  the  rela- 
tionship which   the    Latin   and    the  Norman   elements   of   the   English 


GENETIC  METHOD  127 

language  bear  to  both  English  and  French.  Simple  exercises  in  etymology 
may  greatly  facilitate  the  early  acquisition  of  a  suflScient  number  of 
words,  to  enable  the  pupil  to  read  easy  writers  without  a  too  frequent 
use  of  the  dictionary.  If  French  is  studied  by  pupils  who  possess  some 
knowledge  of  Latin,  this  knowledge  can  be  used  to  great  advantage  in 
etymological  illustration,  and  in  giving  a  clear  view  of  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  Romanic  languages.  The  understanding  of  French 
authors  can  be  made  quite  easy  for  most  pupils,  who  soon  find  that 
the  majority  of  the  words  have  equivalents  from  the  same  roots  in 
their  own  language.  The  reading  should,  therefore,  be  rapid  and  not 
too  much  interrupted  by  grammatical  or  literary  remarks.  The  aim, 
at  first,  should  be  to  make  the  language  familiar  to  the  pupil;  as  he 
advances,  it  will  be  easy,  without  any  sacrifice  of  time,  to  call  attention 
to  the  rhetorical  excellencies  of  the  French  classics.  Classic  prose  should 
precede  poetry,  and  should  be  read  to  a  much  larger  extent.  The  great 
prose  writers  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  have  some  claims  to  the 
privilege  of  being  read  first;  at  all  events,  they  should  not  be  neglected. 
French  literature  is  exceedingly  rich  in  works  suited,  in  every  respect, 
for  beginners;  and  there  is  no  reason  why  modern  writers  should  deprive 
Fenelon's  Telemaque  and  Voltaire's  Charles  XII  of  the  deserved  popularity 
which  they  have  so  long  enjoyed.  —  There  is,  generally,  too  little  time  in 
English  and  American  institutions  for  the  study  of  French  literature.     In 

most  cases,  the  time  devoted  to  it  may  be  more  profitably  spent 
Vte^^^tre   ^^^  improving  the  pupil's  technical  knowledge  of  the  language. 

Of  course,  advanced  pupils  should  become  acquainted  with  the 
most  celebrated  authors  as  well  as  a  rudimentary  outline  of  the  literary 
history  of  France;  but  most  of  this  can  best  be  learned  as  an  introduction 
to  the  reading  of  the  standard  writers.  Good  French  reading  books,  with 
literary  introductions  to  the  different  authors,  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  especially  in  advanced  classes,  with  great  advantage.  The  reading 
of  selections  which  would  make  the  pupil  acquainted  with  the  peculiar 
style  and  excellencies  of  Corneille,  Eacine,  Moliere,  Boileau,  Fenelon,  etc. 
of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV;  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Montesquieu,  Florian,  &c., 
of  the  philosophical  century;  of  Chateaubriand,  Beranger,  Lamartine, 
V.  Hugo,  G.  Sand,  Guizot,  Thiers,  Michelet,  <tc.,  of  modern  times,  is  prefer- 
able to  the  exclusive  reading  of  one  or   two  entire  works    of  French 

literature.  —  When  colloquial  exercises  constitute  the  chief  part 
e-^i^ofs  ^^  French  instruction,  and  to  acquire  fluency  of  speech  is  the 
'  chief  aim,  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  command  of  the 
language  thus  obtained  may  give  to  the  pupil  something  more  than  a 
collection  of  trivial  phrases  and  unmeaning  expressions  of  politeness. 
Eminent  educators  have  often  called  attention  to  the  dangerous  influence 
which  a  knowledge,  so  exclusively  formal  and  without  substance,  may 
exercise  upon  the  pupil's  mind. 

GENETIC  METHOD,  in  instruction,  is  but  another  name  for  what 
is  more  frequently  called  the  developing  method.  The  term  genetic  implies 
that  the  mind  of  the  pupil  is  to  be  guided  by  the  teacher  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  be  able  to  perceive  the  genesis  of  the  truths  communicated, 
that  is,  their  development  from  fundamental  principles;  or  that  it  will  be 


128  GENIUS  — GEOGRAPHY 

led  to  construct  for  itself  general  principles  from  observed  facta  as 
antecedents.  This  method  recognizes  the  need  of  agenesis,  or  development, 
of  actual  conceptions  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  as  the  basis  for  every 
other  educational  process.     (See  Developing  Method.) 

GENIUS  (Lat.  genius,  innate  power  or  capacitj^  from  gignere,  to 
produce),  as  used  in  modern  times,  has  been  variously  defined  by  many 

writers,  who,  though  differing  widely  as  to  its  essential  quality, 
Jjejlnuion.  ^^^  agreed  as  to  its  outward,  distinguishing  manifestation; 
namely,  unusual  mental  ability  coupled  always  with  great  intuitional  or 
creative  power.  Akin  to  genius  are  those  special  aptitudes  which  are 
mauifested,  some  times  at  quite  an  early  age.    Ihese,  as  constituting  a  part 

of  the  character,   should  be  recognized  by  the  educator;   and 
ODlUades   ^^"'^^^  ^'^'^X  should  not  form  the  basis  of  general  training  or 

discipline,  should  be  allowei  their  specific  exercise;  and,  in  the 
mors  advanced  steps  of  education,  should  become  distinct  objects  of 
culture.  The  existence  of  this  special  talent,  or  of  genius  itself,  should 
not  be  permitted  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  industry  and  application. 
As  far  as  possible,  the  tasks  imposed  by  the  instructor  should  bear  a 
proper  relation  to  the  special  ability  of  the  students,  those  who  are  of 
brilliant  parts  being  required  to  accomplish  more  than  those  who  are 
com])aratively  dull  and  slow  to  acquire.  Many  youths  of  great  promise, 
in  large  schools,  are  often  seriously  injured  by  insuflieient  requirements, 
lapsi  'g  into  sloth  or  bad  habits  by  the  want  of  full  occupation.  This 
principle  is  of  great  importance;  though  its  application  in  school  and 
college  education  is  accompanied  with  many  dithculties.  The  true  edu- 
cator will,  however,  recognize  it,  and  allow  it  to  guide  and  regulate  many 
of  his  operations.  'I'he  possession  of  the  brightest  genius  cannt)t  supersede 
the  necessity  of  industry  and  study.  "  Invention",  said  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  "is  one  of  the  great  marks  of  genius;  but,  if  we  consult 
experience,  we  shall  find,  that  it  is  l)y  being  conversant  with  the  inven- 
tions of  others,  that  we  learn  to  invent,  as,  by  reading  the  thoughts 
of  others,  we  learn  to  think''. 

GEOGRAPHY  (Gr.  yea,  yij,  the  earth,  and  yocKfiriv,  to  write)  has  in 
its  own  name  a  concise  yet  comprehensive  definition.  In  treating  of 
geography  as  a  branch  of  elementary  instruction  (for  such  it  exclusively  is 
at  the  present  time),  we  shall  consider  (I)  what  are  the  faculties  which  are 
specially  exercised  in  studying  it;  (11)  the  different  stages  into  which  the 
instruction  should  be  divided,  and  what  is  proper  to  each;  (III)  the  age 
at  which  the  study  should  be  commenced;  and  (IV)  the  proper  methods  of 
teaching  it.     (Jeography  presents  to  the  mind  conceptions  of  countries  and 

peoples  that  we  have  never  visited,  analogous  to  those  which  we 
°^^'  have  acquired  in  relation  to  regions  wliich  we  have  actually 
seen.  It  further  seeks  to  combine  and  generalize  these  conceptions  into  a 
systematic  view  of  the  earth  .as  a  whole,  and  as  the  abode  of  mankind. 
The  fundamental  conceptions,  therefore,  which  are  to  be  tims  amplified, 
combined,  or  otherwise  modified,  must  be  based  upon  objective  presenta- 
tion. A  landscape,  the  more  varied  the  better,  or  in  default  of  this,  a 
good  pictorial  representation,  as  its  nearest  equivalent,  must  furnish  most 

of  the  basic  elements.     The  first,  though  limited,  steps  must, 
irs  s  eps.  tiierefope^  \^  made  throtigh  an  appeal  to  the  ptrcejitlve  faculties. 


GEOGRArHY  129 

ITie  second  stage  must  consist  in  an  exercise  of  the  conceptive  faculties  in 
vividly  recalling  and  combining  the  impressions  which  the  objective 
presentation  has  made  upon  the  mind.  The  pupil  must  be  trained  to 
recall  the  image  of  the  mountain,  the  island,  the  forest,  the  placid  lake, 
the  verdant  plain,  or  the  flowing  river;  to  see  again,  as  it  were,  the  tossing 
ocean  and  to  hear  the  roar  of  its  waves  as  they  break  upon  the  beach;  and 
to  picture  to  himself  in  one  season  of  tiae  year  the  aspect  of  nature  in  an- 
other. These  and  other  analogous  impressions,  already  obtained  from 
physical  phenomena,  must  furnish  the  iudisj)ensable  basis  for  any  true 
progress  in  geographical  knowledge.  But  all  this  training  is  not  the 
teaching  of  geograpliy,  but  only  the  necessary  preparation  for  it.  These 
conceptions  are  to  geography  but  as  the  syllables  to  language, 
Imagina-  qj.  as  the  gamut  to  melody.  Throughout  the  teaching  of 
addressed  g^'^S^^P^^y''  another  mental  faculty,  the  imagination  of  the 
'pupil,  must  be  brought  into  exercise.  These  conceptions  of 
phenomena  and  of  regions  that  he  has  actually  seen  must  now  be  modified, 
amplified,  and  combined,  to  form  conceptions  of  phenomena  and  regions 
that  he  has  not  seen.  The  conception  of  the  rivulet  must  be  expanded  to 
that  of  the  mighty  river;  the  little  lake  or  pond  must  lead  the  mind  to  the 
broad  ocean;  and  the  little  hills,  to  mountain  ranges.  The  low  sun  and 
Bnovvy  fields  of  winter  must  be  modified  into  an  arctic  landscape;  and  the 
verdant  meadow,  into  the  boundless  prairie.  AVhen,  at  the  proper  stage, 
the  study  of  maps  is  introduced,  the  discipline  of  the  memory 
Memory.  -^  added  to  that  of  the  perceptive,  conceptive,  and  imaginative 
faculties,  as  in  remembering  the  location  of  mountains,  islands,  rivers,  and 
towns,  and  the  various  facts  associated  with  them;  while  an  appeal  is  also 
made,  with  increasing  frequency,  to  the  judgment,  in  tracing  the  necessary 
relation  of  tiie  location  of  cities  to  rivers  and  coast-lines,  and  in  connecting 
the  general  course  of  a  river  with  the  elevations  and  slopes  of  the  country 
which  it  drains. 

II.  The  successive  stages  of  geographical  instruction  have  been  already, 
in  part,  indicated.  The  conceptions  and  distinctions  of  mainland  and  is- 
land; of  mountain,  hill,  and  tabledand;  of  lake,  river,  basin, 
of^te^^^s  "^^^^^y,  peninsula,  and  cape;  of  climate,  vegetation,  race,  and  other 
'  geographical  elements,  should  first  be  fixed,  and  then  the  terms 
which  embody  them  should  be  described  by  the  pupil  himself.  Too  much 
stress  is  usually  placed  upon  the  precise  and  formal  definitions  of  these 
terms.  Some  of  them,  such  as  sea,  gulf,  bay,  and  lake,  as  actually  used, 
defy  all  sharp  differentiation;  and  others, such  as  continent  and  watershed, 
are  variously  used  by  standard  authorities.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  definitions  in  geography  have  a  totally  distinct  function  from  those  of 
mathematics,  grammar,  and  other  logical  or  deductive  sciences.  In  these, 
the  correct  conception  of  a  term,  such  as  parallelogram  or  adjective,  is  to 
be  obtained  from  its  definition;  whereas,  in  geography,  the  definition,  if 
required,  must  be  developed  from  a  correct  conception  of  the  object  defined. 
The  formal  definitions  of  geographical  terms  have,  indeed,  their  place;  but 
this  is  not  in  the  first  stage  of  the  subject.  The  geographical  terms  and 
their  association  should  be  followed  by  ideas  of  direction  or  relative  posi- 
tion, that  is,  a  knowledge  of  the  cardinal  points;  after  this,  the  construction 
and  interpretation  of  a  simple  map  of  limited  and  known  localities,  be- 


130  GEOGRAPHY 

ginning  perhaps  with  a  plan  or  map  of  the  school  room  itself,  followed 
by  a  map  of  the  immediate  neighborhood,  then  by  that  of  the  county  as  it 
Mans     "^°"'*^  appear  if  seen  from  a  balloon.     When  the  pupil  has  been 
thoroughly  trained  to  understand  the  symbols  of  the  map,  and 
readily  to  picture  to  himself  the  things  that  are  symbolized  by  the  various 
lines,  dots,  and  other  marks,  he  is  in  possession  of  all  the  elementary  ideas 
es.sential  to  the  subject.  —  Either  of  two  opposite  courses  may  now  be 
pui-sued  in  giving  the  outline  of  geography  itself  such  as  is  usually  included 
in  a  primary  or  elementary  course  for  beginners.     One  of  these  plans, 
Sunthetic  ^"°^^'"  ''^^  *'^^  synthetic,  begins  with  the  study  of  a  map  of  the 
method,    locality  of  the  pupil's  home  or  neighborhood;  it  takes  next  the 
map  of  the  county,  tlieii  of  the  state  or  district,  and,  finally, 
of  the  whole  country  in  which  the  pupil  resides.     After  this,  follows  the 
study  of  the  simple  outlines  of  the  continent  of  which  the  country  forms 
a  part;  then  the  outlines  of  the  other  continents  or  grand  divisions,  in  some 
preferred  order,  and  finally  a  gi^neral  review,  which  completes  and  combines 
all  that  has  preceded  it  into  a  brief  view  of  the  world  as  a  whole.     The 
Anahdio   °*^^^'''  °^  ^"'^^i^'*'^  system,  pursues,  at  least  in  its  early  stages,  an 
system,     exactly  reverse  course.     From  the  consideration  of  certain  com- 
mon phenomena  and  other  well  known  facts,  the  pupil  is  first 
led  to  form  a  conception  of  the  earth  as  a  gigantic  globe  or  ball;  then  of 
the  primary  divisions  of  its  surface  into  land  and  water;  and  then  of  the 
leading  subdivisions  of  these  primary  elements.   After  learning  the  climatic 
division  of  the  earth  into  zones,  the  pupil  .studies  the  continents,  each  in 
its_  turn,  as  in  the  other  .system.     Both  of  these  systems  have  their  strong 
points,  both  have  been  successfully  followed,  and  both  have  earnest  adv(> 
cates.     J^xcepting  in  their  initial  and  terminal  stages  they  have  much  in 
common.     One  great  advantage  of  the  analytic  system  is,  that  it  more 
readily  admits  the  early  introduction  of  the  terrestrial  globe,  and  requires 
its  frequent  use  throughout.     In  no  other  way  can  certain  serious  miscon- 
ceptions be  thoroughly  prevented.     The  use  of  maps  of  different  scales, 
together  with  the  inherent  faults  of  projection,  leads  to  erroneous  ideas  in 
regard  to  the  relative  size  of  countries,  and  to  wrong  conceptions  of  their 
relative  positions.     These  first  impressions  are  hard  to  correct,  and,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  are  never  corrected.     The  globe  should  have 
thellohe.  ^^*^  leading  place  in  teaching  elementary  geography.     It  should 
be  useil  to  fix  the  idea  of  the  spherical  shape  of  the  earth,  its 
dimensions,  and  the  division  of  its  surface  into  land  and  water.     It  should 
give  the  first  view  of  its  division  into  continents,  oceans,  islands  etc.,  and 
just  conceptions  of  their  relative  position   and  magnitude.     By  no  other 
means  can  the  astronomic  elements  of  primary  geography  be  so  simply  and 
correctly  tauglit;  such  as  the  causes  of  day  and  night,  and  of  the  seasons, 
the  zones,  the   nature  of  latitude  and  longitude  and  the  need  of  these 
Fiual      measurements.     The   final  stage  of  geography,  as  a  branch  of 
stage,     elementary  instruction,  is  much  more  comprehensive  than  the 
preceding  stages,  and  makes  more  frequent  appeals  to  the  judgment  and 
the  memory.     The  outline  already  given  is  to  be  reviewed  and  filled  up. 
Political  or  social  geography  is  then  to  be  more  fully  and  systematically 
taught;  and  the  whole  sul>ject  of  the  peculiarities  and  resources,  together 
with  the  commercial  and  other  relations  of  all  the  most  important  coun- 


GEOGRAPHY  131 

tries  of  the  globe,  is  to  be  more  fully  shown.  Geographical  definitions  are 
now  desirable.  These  should  be  followed  by  a  review  of  the  outlines  of 
astronomical  geography,  and  then  by  a  thorough  training  in  the  outlines  of 
coujparative  physical  geography,  as  furnishing  the  only  scientific 
Physical  jj^sis,  and  the  only  true  principles  of  scientific  generalization, 
geography.  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  political  geography.  This  training  should  in- 
clude, at  first,  well-arranged  exercises  on  simple  physical  maps  of  the  hemi- 
spheres, great  care  being  taken,  at  this  stage,  to  furnish  only  so  much  of 
topography  as  is  necessary  for  the  lessons  on  descriptive  comparative  physi- 
cal geography,  which  should  immediately  follow.  These  descriptive  lessons 
should  be  brief  and  clear,  and  should  substantially  include  the  following 
points  in  their  proper  order:  (1)  a  comparison  of  the  continents  or  grand 
divisions  of  the  land  in  regard  to  position,  form,  size,  and  principal  hori- 
zontal projections;  (2)  the  comparison  and  classification  of  islands,  the 
chief  mountain  systems,  table-lands,  and  lowland  plains;  (3)  the  oceans 
and  ocean  currents,  and  the  great  rivers  and  lakes;  (4)  climate  as  affected 
by  latitude,  by  elevation,  and  by  winds  and  ocean  currents;  and  (5)  the 
general  distribution  of  characteristic  plants  and  animals,  and  of  the  races 
of  ipankind.  All,  or  nearly  all,  of  these  may  be  profitably  taught  simply 
as  physical  facts  to  be  known  by  observation.  The  study  of  the  explanatory 
theories  belongs  to  a  higher  stage  of  geographical  knowledge.  _  Each  of  the 
six  grand  divisions  should  now  be  considered  in  turn;  first,  in  relation  to 
the  leading  facts  of  its  physical  geography,  including  its  surface,  drainage, 
cHraate,  and  characteristic  plants  and  animals,  indigenous  or  exotic;  and 
secondly,  on  the  basis  of  these  physical  facts,  in  relation  to  the  separate 
political  subdivisions,  their  inhabitants,  towns  and  cities,  resources,  com- 
merce, industrial  development,  government,  and  general  social  condition. 
Finally,  a  brief  but  comprehensive  general  review  should  bring  out,  in  strong 
relief,  the  various  interrelations  of  the  different  countries  in  regard  to  com- 
merce, government,  race,  language,  and  religion. 

III.  As  a  general  rule,  the  pupil  should  not  begin  the  study  of 
geography,  at  least,  not  what  may  be  called  map  geography,  until  ten  or 
eleven  years  of  age.  There  are,  however,  geographical  lessons, 
Early  ^£  ^  ^g^y.  gj^iple  character,  which  may  be  profitably  given  to 
younger  children.  These  should,  according  to  the  principles 
already  stated,  be  pictorial  and  descriptive,  approximating  to  object-lessons, 
in  being  designed  to  develop  ideas  rather  than  to  impart  knowledge.  In 
relation  to  this  stage  of  the  instruction,  Currie  says,  in  Principles  of 
Earhi  School  Ediiccttion,  "  The  geography  of  the  infant  school  is  a  series 
of  object-lessons  connected  by  a  geographical  link.  It  but  prepares  materials 
for  the  formal  study  of  geography.  It  may  be  thought  that  the  use  of  the 
map  would  facilitate  this  instruction ;  but  it  is  quite  immaterial  whether 
the  map  be  in  the  school  or  not.  It  is  the  business  of  the  next  stage  of 
progress  to  localize  all  that  has  been  learnt;  which  it  does  by  going  regularly 
over  the  map,  and  fixing  down  in  position  the  countries,  which  as  yet  are 
only  names  to  the  children.  The  utmost  use  of  the  map  that  should  be 
made  in  the  infant  school  is  to  go  over  with  the  elder  infants,  if  time 
permit,  at  the  end  of  their  course,  on  a  physical  map  of  the  world,  distinctly 
outlined  so  as  to  show  the  features  of  districts,  the  general  outline  of  what 
they  have  learnt".    If  it  were  not  for  the  early  period  at  which  most 


132  GEOGRAPHY 

children  leave  school,  the  regular  study  of  geography  might  be  profitably 
deferred  considerably  longer.  The  prevalent  practice  of  thrusting  the 
study  of  maps  upon  the  time  and  attention  of  very  young  children  has 
much  to  do  with  the  general  disgust  of  both  pupils  and  teachers  at  the 
usual  net  results  of  its  study.  The  introductory  course  should  occupy 
from  a  year  to  a  year  and  a  half;  the  subsequent  course,  from  two  and  a 
half  to  three  yeare. 

IV.  The  principles  which  should  guide  in  the  selection  of  methods  of 
teaching  this  subject,  have  already  been  explained,  and  the  difference 
between  the  synthetic  and  analytic  systems  has  been  defined. 
Methods,  rj'jjg  following  suggestive  hints  will  prove  valuable  to  practical 
teachers:  (1)  The  memorizing  of  the  details  of  maps  without  sufficient 
descriptive  matter,  will  leave  no  permanent  impression  on  the  mind;  hence, 
(2)  let  the  study  of  the  map  be  subordinated  to  that  of  the  other  important 
facta,  such  as  soil,  climate,  productions,  etc.,  relating  to  the  separate 
countries;  and  (3)  let  these  facts  be  presented  and  studied  in  a  uniform 
order,  so  that  the  pupil's  mind  will  always  have  a  guide,  both  for  investiga- 
tion and  oral  desci  iption.  A  special  order  of  topics  for  this  purpose  has 
already  been  suggested.  It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind,  that  in  propor- 
tion as  the  pupil  becomes  interested  in  the  particular  country  studied,  he 
will  desire  to  know  more  of  its  geographical  details,  and  will  remember 
them  longer.  Hence,  the  exhauMice  study  of  the  map  shoidd  not  precede 
all  other  lessons.  After  fully  locating  the  country  to  be  studied,  by  means 
of  its  boundaries,  etc.,  the  teacher  may  proceed  with  a  description  of  some 
of  its  most  striking  features,  passing  from  these  to  the  more  minute  details 
of  topography,  as  they  are  brought  out  by  this  description,  until  all  the 
topographical  and  descriptive  details  are  sufficiently  learned.  In  considering 
the  methods  to  be  pursued  in  the  study  of  geography,  reference  must  also 
be  made  to  the  necessary  appliances.  For  the  first  stages  of  the  study  a 
simple  terrestrial  globe  and  good  wall-maps  are  indispensable.  Relief  maps 
and  relief  globes,  as  now  constructed  and  used,  are  of  great  value  in  giving 
correct  ideas  of  the  superficial  configuration  of  different  countries.  As 
far  as  possible,  each  locality  should  have  some  associated  idea  interesting 
to  the  pupils.  Whatever  is  taught  should  be  frequently  and  systematically 
reviewed  by  careful  questioning,  so  that  the  impressions  made  may  be 
definite  and  lasting,  in  the  first  stage  of  geographical  study,  the  teacher 
is  obliged  to  do  a  large  part  of  the  work;  in  the  later  stage,  the  pupil 
should  be  trained  to  do  as  much  as  possible  for  himself.  This  subject, 
when  properly  taught,  furnishes  an  excellent  and  necessary  discipline  for 
the  memory.  The  illustrations  of  the  text-book  should  be  supplemented, 
if  necessary,  from  other  sources.  Books  of  travel  may  be  made  one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  auxiliaries  in  teaching  geography.  If  the  school  possesses 
a  cyclopaedia  or  gazetteer,  it  should  be  used  for  illustration  or  additional 
facta.  No  element  in  the  successful  teaching  of  geography  is  of  greater 
importance  than  thorough  reviews.  These  may  take  any  one  or  more  of 
a  variety  of  forms  too  well  known  to  need  description.  Cartography,  or 
the  drawing  of  neat  and  minutely  accurate  maps,  is  esteemed 
dramna  ^y  niany  experience  1  teachers  as  a  valuable  adjunct  in  (geograph- 
ical teaching;  yet  it  is  at  least  questionable  whether  the  large 
expenditure  of  time  required  is  fairly  repaid  by  the  value  of  the  results. 


GEOLOGY  133 

The  necessary  topography  may  be  much  more  effectively  memorized  and 
reviewed  by  spirited  exercises  in  drawing,  or  rapidly  sketching,  outline 
maps  from  memory,  Of  systems  of  mdp-drawing,  for  this  purpose,  there 
is  a  considerable  variety,  all  having  more  or  less  merit;  but  the  great 
desideratum  in  this  part  of  the  instruction  is,  that  the  relative  sizes  of 
countries  and  distances  of  places  should,  by  means  of  it,  be  permanently 
impressed  upon  the  memory.  This  constitutes  what  is  sometimes  called  the 
constructive  method  of  teaching  geography;  upon  which  much  dependence 
is  placed  in  the  German  systems  of  instruction.  For  the  aid  of  the  pupil 
various  devices  are  resorted  to,  some  using  the  square,  others  a  series  of 
triangulations,  and  still  others  a  combination  of  these,  in  connection  with 
arbitrary  measures.  For  the  literatui-e  of  this  subject,  see  Cyclopcedia  of 
Education. 

GEOLOGY  (Gr.  yea,  yij,  the  earth,  and  7.6yoq,  a  discourse),  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  history  of  the  earth.  More  exactly,  it  consists  of  a 
J)  f!  f  group  of  sciences  which  treat  of  the  materials  of  which  the  earth 
Jjejin  ion.  -^  cQQjpoged,  and  of  the  arrangement  of  these  materials,  whether 
superficial  or  deep-seated,  and  of  their  relations  to  one  another;  of  the 
changes  which  the  earth  is  uudergoing  at  present,  and  of  the  series  of 
changes  through  which  it  has  heretofore  passed. 

The  general  omission  of  geology  from  the  course  of  instruction  in  high 

schools  and  colleges  is  much  to  be  regretted;   since,  whether  for  the  purpose 

Eiuoa-    of  culture  or  information,  it  has  many  claims  to  consideration, 

iional     a  few  of  which  are  here  suggested:    (1)  Of  all  sciences  it  most 

value,     thoroughly  cultivates  a  habit  of  inductive  reasoning;  (2)  It  so 

completely  permeates  physical  geography  that  a  knowledge  of  its  elements 

is  essential  to  the  intelligent  comprehension  of  the  latter;  (3)  It  is  obviously 

necessary  and  proper,  while  children  are  taught  that  the  earth  revolves 

around  the  sun,  and  other  facts  of  the  solar  system,  that  they  should  also 

learn  that  the  earth  of  to-day  has  had  a  long  and  eventful  history  and 

that  the  Uving  forms  upon  it  were  not  created  at  once  as  we  find  them 

now;  (4)  The  practical  applications  of  the  truths  of  geology  are  not  only 

of  scientific  interest  and  importance  but  of  great  general  utility. 

If  it  is  true  that  difficulty  has  arisen  in  communicating  geological  knowl^ 
edge,  it  has,  probably,  been  owing  to  two  causes:  (1)  To  a  hesitation  in 
^  telling  the  whole  truth,  and.  (2)  to  a  misconception,  in  teach- 
inieaclmiQ  ^"°-'  ^^  *^  ^^^*  really  constitutes  the  essential  part  of  the  science. 
geology.  ^^  ^^  customary  among  teachers  to  dwell  upon  the  details  of  strata, 
fossils,  etc.,  more  than  upon  general  tmderlying  principles.  The 
inculcation  of  the  latter,  at  an  early  age.  by  reference  to  surrounding  causes 
and  effects,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  earliest  lessons  in  physical  geog- 
raphy, would  lay  a  sure  basis  for  the  former,  to  be  studied  if  desirable  at  a 
later  date.  If  you  wish  to  give  a  child  fundamental  ideas  regarding  val- 
leys and  mountains  make  him  see  that  every  rain-storm  carves  otxt,  in 
miniature,  such  surface  features  in  the  sand-heap  and  the  clay-bank;  and 
that  it  requires  but  a  sufficient  increase  in  the  number  of  the  rain-storms 
to  increase  indefinitely  the  extent  of  their  action.  With  a  realization  of 
the  powers  constantly  at  work  producing  such  changes,  the  student  will 
advance  to  an  intelligent  study  of  the  rocks  and  of  the  fo.s-sils,  as  examples 
of  some  of  the  effects  thus  produced.    See  Cyclopcedia  of  Education, 


134  GEOMETRY 

GEOMETRY  (Gr.  yeu/jerpia,  from  yta,  ;?/,  the  earth,  and  /jETpelv,  to 
measure),  the  science  which  treats  of  the  properties  and  relations  of 
magnitudes.     We  get  the  elements  of  this  science  as  well  as  the  word  used 

...  to  designate  it  from  the  ancient  Greeks.  Etymologically,  the 
Defimtion.  ^.q^^  jg  synonjanous  with  our  term  land  surveying,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  it  ever  had  simply  this  signification.  As  far  back  as  we 
can  trace  the  history  of  the  subject,  there  appeare  to  have  been  a  body  of 
theoretical  truths  and  problems  designated  by  this  term.  Thus,  in  the 
time  of  Plato,  the  word  yeu/ierpiu  does  not  appear  to  have  had  any  more 
specific  reference  to  land  measuring,  than  it  has  with  us;  for,  when  he 
spoke  of  God  (etof)  as  geomelrizlng,  he  certainly  had  no  reference  to  land 
surveying.  But  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  article  to  trace  the  history  of 
geometry,  nor  to  give  even  a  resume  of  its  truths  and  methods.  The  ob- 
ject is  to  point  out  its  place  and  function  in  a  scheme  of  general  education, 
and  to  offer  certain  practical  suggestions  in  regard  to  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing it.  These  will  be  presented  in  connection  with  the  following  inquiries 
and  considerations. 

I.  Hoic  should  this  subject  be  approached,  in  the  first  instavce.  by  the 
learner?     The  proper  reply  to  this  is,  he  should  first  become  acquainted 

Facts     ^^^^  ^'^^  leading  facts  of  plane  geometry,  without  any  attempt  at 

before  scientific  demonstration;  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  chief 
demonstra-  excellence  of  geometry,  as  a  means  of  mental  improvement,  lies 

tioti.  jj^  j^g  admirable  body  of  practical  logic.  It  is.  in  part,  in  conse- 
quence of  this  very  fact  that  the  learner  should  have  an  acquaintance  with 
the  fundamental  truths  of  the  science,  as  facts,  before  he  attempts  to  reason 
upon  them.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  logical  faculty  is  not  the 
inventive  faculty.  In  general,  its  materials  must  be  furnished  it.  Espe- 
cially is  this  true  with  reference  to  fundamental  truths.  'I'he  history  of  the 
development  of  science  affords  abundant  proof  that  these  truths  are  furnished 
to  the  logical  faculty  rather  than  by  it.  Thus,  the  theorems,  J/  one  straight 
line  meet  another  straight  line,  the  sum  of  the  angles  fo'^ned  equals  tiro 
right  angles;  The  sum  of  the  angles  of  a  triangle  is  two  right  angles;  The 
square  described  on  the  hypotenuse  rfa  right-angled  triangle  is  equivalent 
to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the  other  two  sides;  The  circtnnference  of  a 
circle  is  a  little  more  than  three  times  its  diameter;  and  many  others,  were 
known  to  men  as  facts,  and  their  practical  significance  was  well  understood, 
long  before  their  logical  connection,  with  axioms  and  definitions  was  traced. 
As>  it  has  been  with  tlie  race,  so  it  should  be  with  the  individual;  the  facts 
are  needed  as  a  basis  for  logical  inquiry.  AVe  cannot  reason  about  that 
concerning  which  we  know  little  or  nothing.  Indeed,  this  principle  has 
been  almost  universally  acknowledged  in  the  con.struction  of  our  text  books 
on  geometiy  upon  the  analytical  rather  than  upon  the  synthetical  model. 
From  the  time  of  Euclid,  at  least,  to  the  present  time,  the  custom  has  been 
to  state  each  truth  in  formal  ])ro]iosition  before  attempting  to  demonstrate 
it;  but  this  is  not  sufficient.  'J'lie  mere  statement  of  such  a  truth  does  not 
give  the  ordinary  mind  a  sufficiently  clear  and  full  apprehension  of  it  to 
interest  the  attention  or  to  guide  the  thought.  "What  is  needed  by  the 
individual  student  is  exactly  wiiat  was  pos.=;essed  by  the  race,  as  antecedent 
JlhiMra-    to  logical  inquiry:  he  needs  to  know  the  fact,  and  to  perceive  its 

tione.      practical  significance,  before  he  attempts  to  reason  about  it.    For 


GEO-METRV  ]35 

example,  if  the  tyro  has  learned  by  trial  that  he  cannot  take  three  given 
rods  and,  by  placing  their  ends  together,  make  triangles  of  different  forms, 
he  is  prepared  to  understand  and  reason  upon  the  fact  that  mutualli/  equi- 
lateral triangles  are  equal.  Again,  if  he  has  experimented  with  two  sets 
of  proportional  rods,  and  found  that  he  can  combine  them  only  into  tri- 
angles of  the  same  shape,  he  is  prepared  to  be  intelligently  interested  in  the 
reasoning  which  proves  that,  if  two  triangles  have  their  homologous  sides 
proportional,  they  are  similar.  And  so  of  all  the  fundamental  truths  of 
plane  geometry.  Much  of  the  superficial  and  merely  mechanical,  memoriter 
work  which  is  done  by  pupils  in  geometry  is  caused  by  their  having  no 
adequate  conception  of  the  facts  about  which  they  are  attempting  to  reason. 
Once  show  the  pupil  by  measurement  that  the  circumference  of  a  given 
circle  is  a  little  over  three  times  its  diameter,  and  he  will  be  induced  to  in- 
quire whether  it  is  so  in  another,  and  finally  if  it  is  true  in  all  circles. 
Again,  let  him  draw  several  pairs  of  chords  intersecting  in  a  circle,  and  by 
actual  measurement  find  that  the  segments  are  reciprocally  proportional, 
and  his  curiosity  naturally  prompts  him  to  inquire  why  this  is  so.  Finally, 
a  few  illustrations  of  the  mechanical  value  of  the  truths  with  which  they 
are  becoming  familiar  will,  with  most  pupils,  give  added  zest  to  their  study 
and  acquisition.  To  know  that  the  brace  stiffens  the  frame  because  the 
angles  of  a  triangle  cannot  be  changed  without  changing  the  sides,  while 
those  of  a  quadrilateral  can;  to  see  how  the  carpenter  can  square  his  foun- 
dation, calculate  the  length  of  his  brace  or  rafter,  on  the  principle  that  the 
square  on  the  hypotenuse  is  equivalent  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  on  the 
two  other  sides  of  a  right-angled  triangle;  how  inaccessible  heights, and  the 
distances  between  inaccessible  objects,  can  be  determined  by  the  property 
of  similar  triangles  —  these,  and  the  like  applications  of  the  principles  he  is 
about  to  investigate,  give  an  air  of  practical  reality  to  the  abstract  specula- 
tions of  the  science,  which  will  be  found  exceedingly  helpful  and  stimulat- 
ing to  the  student. 

II.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  geometry  is  a  mechanical  as  icell 
as  a  logical  science.  No  more  mischievous  mistake  can  be  made  than  to 
underrate  the  jj;*oWe??i,s  of  geometry;  nevertheless  this  is  not  an 
rlle^  uncommon  practice  with  teachers.  While  some  teachers  permit 
*  the  pupil  to  omit  these  problems  in  construction  altogether, 
others  allow  him  the  almost  equally  pernicious  habit  of  describing  the 
construction  without  actually  performing  the  work  according  to  the 
description.  Thus,  they  allow  him  to  tell  how  an  angle  is  bisected  without 
requiring  him  actually  to  bisect  a  given  angle;  they  accept  a  clumsy 
description  of  the  process  of  inscribing  a  circle  in  a  triangle,  illustrated  by 
a  free-hand  caricature  of  the  thing  itself,  instead  of  requiring  a  neat  and 
accurate  construction  upon  correct  geometrical  princijjles.  Now,  this  is 
j  geometry  with  the  actual  geometry  left  out.  Nor  is  it  simply  that  the 
mere  mechanical  part  (not  an  inconsiderable  or  unimportant  part)  is  left 
out;  but  any  critical  examination  of  such  pupils  will  usually  show  that  the 
logical  part  is  also  omitted;  in  short,  that  the  pupil  neither  comprehends 
the  nature  of  the  process  and  the  reasons  for  its  several  steps,  nor  is 
actually  able  to  execute  it.  While  it  is  possible  for  a  person  to  have  the 
mechanical  faculty  in  a  high  degree,  and  tolerably  well  cultivated,  and  yet, 
being  deficient  in  the  logical  faculty,  to  fail  of  being  a  good  geometrician, 


136  GEOMETRY 

it  is  equally  possible,  and,  as  the  subject  is  too  commonly  taught  it  is  quite 
common,  to  find  those  who  have  fair  logical  powers,  or  who  have  learned 
the  formulas  of  logic,  so  destitute  of  mechanical  ability  or  culture,  that 
they  utterly  fail  to  appreciate  the  real  spirit  of  geometry,  even  though  they 
may  know,  and  be  able  to  demonstrate,  its  chief  propositions.  Nor  are 
tlie  skill  and  taste  requisite  to  effect  neat  and  accurate  geometrical  con- 
structions, attainments  to  be  despised  in  securing  an  education.  fc>hall  we 
study  the  science  of  form,  and  not  cultivate  taste,  eye,  or  hand  in  reference 
to  form  ?  Shall  we  call  a  person  proficient  in  the  science  of  extension  and 
form,  who  cannot  construct  a  parallelogram,  and  whose  taste  and  eye  are 
so  completely  uneducated,  that  he  cannot  discriminate  between  a  right 
angle  and  an  angle  of  85  or  95  degi-ces,  and  who  cannot,  with  any  degree 
of  precision,  construct  either?  Moreover,  the  zest  which  the  construction 
of  neat  and  accunite  figures  adds  to  the  study,  and  the  clearness  of 
perception  which  is  thus  induced,  are  most  helpful.  In  the  course  here 
recommended,  a  student  Avill  never  be  called  upon  to  demonstrate  a 
l^roposition  in  plane  geometry,  the  figure  for  which  he  cannot  construct 
upon  geometrical  principles;  nor,  iu  any  well-conducted  class,  will  the 
pupils  pass  any  proposition,  the  figures  for  which  they  have  not  so 
constructed.  It  is  not  intended  that  every  figure  used  for  the  purpose  of 
demonstration  should  be  thus  constructed;  but  it  is  urged  that  the  pupil 
should  be  able  to  construct  every  figure  thus,  and  that  he  should  frequently 
be  required  to  do  this;  and,  moreover,  it  is  claimed  that  there  is  a  positive 
power  to  investigate  geometrical  truth  begotten  of  this  method.  Who 
that  has  ever  attained  any  proficiency  in  geometrical  investigation  does 
not  know  the  value  of  an  accurately  constructed  figure  ?  This  is,  generally, 
the  very  first  step  in  an  original  investigation,  the  construction  itself  often 
suggesting  the  entire  line  of  thought. 

III.  JJut,  passing  from  picliminaries,  suppose  the  student  ready  to 
commence  the  study  of  the  body  of  geometrical  propositions  which  make 
Proper  "P  the  elements  (f  geometry,  and  to  learn  how  to  demonstrate 
classifica-  them.  AVhat  should  he  find  presented  to  him  ?  Most  assuredly, 
Hon.  a  u-ell  classified  arrttiuiemod  of  the  subject  matter  is  a  prime 
requisite  in  a  branch  of  study  which  enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the 
most  perfect  of  the  sciences.  It  is,  however,  a  singular  fact,  that  no  such 
classification  has  been  commonly  found  in  our  text-books.  The  sole 
principle  of  the  arrangen)ent  in  luiclid.  which  has  prevailed  for  so  many 
centuries,  is  to  demonstrate  at  first  such  propositions  as  arc  elementary, 
and  hence  of  essential  use  in  subsequent  demonstrations.  Of  course,  such 
an  order  of  sequence  as  this  is  a  necessity;  but  is  there  not  that  in  the 
nature  of  the  subject  matter  which  calls  for  a  more  scientific  arrangement? 
We  venture  to  suggest  the  following:  (1)  'I'he  concejjts  of  plane  geometry 
are  the  straigld  line,  the  circumference  of  the  circle,  and  the  angle;  (2)  The 
two  fundamental  inquiries  are  concerning  magnitude  and /or?«,  the  latter 
of  which  results  from  position.  Bearing  these  statements  in  mind  we 
shall  commence  with  the  simplest  concept,  the  straight  line.  But  shall 
our  first  inquiry  be  concerning  magnitude,  or  concerning  form  or  posi- 
tion? There  are  two  ways  of  measuring  a  straight  line:  (1)  the  direct 
way,  by  ai)p]ying  one  line  to  another,  and  (2)  the  indirect  way,  as  iu 
trigonometry,  when,  having  two  sides  and  au  included  angle  of  a  triunglo 


GEOMETRY  137 

given,  we  determine  the  third  side,  etc.  Now,  in  the  first,  there  is 
httle  or  no  science,  and  the  second  is  not  elementary.  Hence,  we  dismiss 
the  question  of  magnitude,  and  turn  to  the  question  of  position,  which 
gives  rise  to  form.  Here  we  at  once  find  legitimate  objects  of  inquiry, 
and  the  rel  ;tlve  position  of  two  straiylit  lines  will  be  the  first  section. 
The  subdivisions  will  be  of  perpendiculars,  of  oblique  lines,  of  paral- 
lels. As  these  are  all  the  positions  that  straight  lines  can  occupy  with 
reference  to  each  other,  we  have  exhausted  this  line  of  thought.  Passing 
to  the  circumference,  we  dispose  of  the  question  o  magnitude  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  we  did  in  the  case  of  the  straight  line.  The  direct 
measurement  by  the  application  of  an  arc  involves  no  science;  and  the 
indirect,  as  when  we  determine  the  circumference  from  the  radius,  is  a 
remote  inquiry.  Hence,  the  question  of  position  recurs.  Comparing  the 
straight  line  and  the  circumference  as  to  relative  position,  we  find  the 
elementary  properties  of  chords,  secants,  and  tangents.  Comparing  two 
circumferences  as  to  relative  position,  we  have  external  tangency,  intersec- 
tion, internal  tangency,  or  one  wholly  interior  to  the  other;  and  thus  we 
exhaust  this  line  of  inquiry.  Reaching  the  angle,  we  find  that  the 
elementary  method  of  measuring  an  angle  (by  an  arc)  is  the  fundamental 
object,  while  the  relative  position  of  angles  is  an  unimportant  inquiry. 
Hence,  we  treat  the  measurement  of  an  angle  by  an  arc;  and  have  the 
elementary  propositions  concerning  the  angle  at  the  center,  the  angle 
between  intersecting  cliords,  the  inscribed  angle,  the  angle  between  two 
secants,  etc.  We  thus  complete  the  fundamental  inquiries  relating  to  the 
simple  concepts,  and  proceed  to  treat  them  as  combined  in  figures.  The 
first  inquiry  now  concerns  the  relative  magnitudes  of  the  sides  and  angles 
of  a  single  figure;  the  second,  the  comparison  of  figures.  Now,  there  are 
three  ideas  to  be  taken  as  bases  of  comparison;  namely,  (1)  equality,  (2) 
similarity,  and  (3)  equivilence;  out  of  the  last  of  which  grows  the  idea 
of  area.  Having  treated  these  topics,  we  have  exhausted  the  subject  of 
elementary  plane  geometry.  No  other  elementary  inquiry  can  arise;  and 
no  subsequent  inquiries  can  be  carried  forward  except  on  the  basis  of  these. 
Thus  we  have  hastily  sketched  the  outlines  of  a  scientific  arrangement; 
but  our  special  purpose  is  to  insist,  that  some  logical  order  of  sequence 
be  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  student,  whether  it  be  this  or  some 
better  one. 

IV.    Hints  concerning  class-room  icork.  —  The  order  of  arrangement 
in  the  treatment  of  a  geometrical  proposition  should  be  early  fixed  in  the 

student's  mind;  namely,  (1)  The  general  statement  of  the  proposi- 

a?''rawe-     *^"°"'  ^'^^  '^^^  illustration  of  this  statement  by  reference  to  a  par- 

ment.        ticular  diagram;   (3)  Any  additional  construction  which  may  be 

necessary  to  the  demonstration;  (4)  The  demonstration  proper. 
The  exact  language  of  the  text-book  should  always  be  used  in  the  statement 
of  propositions,  and  in  quoting  definitions  and  all  fundamental  principles, 
unless  such  language  is  changed  by  the  instructor  or  student  for  a  particular 

reason;  but  the  demonstration  should  not  be  memorized,  although 
stration     *^^^  general  order  of  thought  should  necessarily  be  retained,  and 

the  s[)irit  and  style  of  the  language  be  preserved.  The  diagram 
should  always  be  constructed  on  the  blackboard  by  the  pupil,  without 
prompting  from  any  source.  When  the  construction  is  complete,  he  should 


i:i8  GEOMETRY 

usually  stand  at  the  board,  and  trace  the  line  of  thought  by  pointing  to  the 
figure,  as  he  proceeds  in  the  demonstration.  Some  have  thought  it  best  to 

use  the  Arabic  figures  to  designate  points,  lines  etc.,  instead  of  the 
Diagram,  capital  letters,  as  ordinarily  found  in  our  text-books,  the  purpose 
being  to  prevent  mere  memorizing;  but  in  reference  to  this,  it  is  to  be  said 
that,  besides  its  exceeding  inelegance,  and  the  fact,  moreover,  that  the  capital 
letters  are  a  part  of  the  language  of  the  science,  the  device  is  of  little  or  no 
use  as  a  preventive  of  memorizing.  It  is  quite  as  easy  for  a  pupil  who  is 
so  disposed,  to  memorize  by  the  mere  position  or  appearance  of  the  parts, 
with  figures  to  designate  them,  or  even  without  any  characters  attached,  as 
by  means  of  letters.    The  pupil  can  make  as  perfect  a  parrot-like  i  ecitation, 

by  merely  memorizing  every  statument  as  referring  to  certain 
Recitation. p.^j.^g  ^f  [\^q  diagram,  and  by  using  the  barbarous  diction,  "line 
this",  "  line  that'',  etc.,  which  may  be  heard  in  some  class  rooms,  as  he  can 
in  any  other  way.  Our  counsel  is,  use  the  langiiage  of  the  science  (the  let- 
ters), and  depend  on  something  less  superficial,  to  prevent  all  improper 
memorizing.  In  referring  to  antecedent  propositions  constituting  the  basis 
of  the  argument,  it  is  far  more  important  that  the  proposition  be  quoted, 
than  that  its  number  be  given;  for  the  latter  is  of  no  sort  of  use  except  as 
a  mere  class-room  convenience,  while  the  former  method  is  of  essential 
service  in  bringing  out  the  argument,  and  also  in  keeping  the  truths  of  the 
science  fresh  in  the  mind,  and  familiar  on  the  tongue.  Such  methods 
should  constitute  the  ordinary  class  room  drill;  but  there  are  others  which 

must  not  be  neglected,  nor  be  unfrequent.    First  among  these  is 


Outline    i\^q 
the 


demon 


giving  of  outlines  of  demonstrations  without  going  through 
,    .•         LLC  details,  and  without  reference  to  a  diagram.     This  is  one  of 
s  }  a  ions,  ^j^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  proficiency  which  can  be  applied,  and  the  whole 
stibject  should  be  repeatedly  reviewed  in  this  Avay.   Again,  frequent  reviews 
of  groups  of  theorems  without  demonstrations  are  essential.     Thus,  the 
teacher  may  call  for  the  propositions  concerning  eqiuiliti/  of 
Review,     lyianrjles,  the  elementary  propositions  concerning  the  measure- 
ment of  migles,  the  propositions  concerniijgparo//e/s,  etc.    AVhen  a  student 
is  assigned  such  a  topic,  he  should  give  all  the  facts  embraced  under  it  (defi- 
nitions, propositions,  corollaries,  and  scholiums),  without  being  prompted. 
Tiiese  three  classes  of  exercises  will  form  the  staple  of  all  class-room  work. 
For  a  final   review,   students  may  be    set  to  tracing    certain   lines   of 
thought  running  through  the  whole  subject.     I'hus,  given  the  subject  of 
eqnalit)/,  he  will  define  it,  distinguisli  it  from  nearly  related  notions,  such 
as  similarity  and  equivalence,  show  that  the  two  latter  notions  make  up  the 
former,  classify  all  tlie  propositions  of  elementary  geometry  which  relate  to 
equality,  and  be  able  to  give  them  with  their  demonstrations,  pointing  out 
any  common  principle  which  may  seem  to  run  through  the  demonstrations. 
In  reference  to  the  latter  lie  will  find  that  eqici/lti/  is  always  proved  by  the 
mere  application  of  one  figure  to  the  other,  with  the  modification,  that  in 
case  of  equality  b>/  si/mm<'./r>/  the  figures  are  divided  into  parts. 
Equality    ^yhich  parts  are  then  applied  as  before.    In  like  manner,  he  can 
"zlf •■?""'  ^®  ^^^  ^^^  ^'^"*^y  *^'*^  subject  of  similarity.   Such  a  study  will  not 
"  ^"      be  merely  a  review  of  tlie  section  on  eqnalit)/,  or  that  on  similar- 
it)/,  since  these  ideas  are  the  basis  of  the  thought  in  many  propositions  where 
they  do  not  constitute  the  main  subject  or  purpose.  In  fact,  it  will  be  found 


GEOMETRY  139 

that  nearly  one-half  of  the  propositions  of  geometry  involve  one  or  the 
other  of  these  notions  (equality  and  similarity)  as  the  basis  of  thought. 
Again  he  may  be  set  to  select  and  study  the  propositions  relating  to  form, 
and  then  those  in  which  magnitude  is  the  object  of  inquiry:  these  two  ideas 
dividing  between  them  the  whole  domain  of  geometrical  truth.  Finally, 
it  is  of  the  highest  importance,  that,  from  first  to  last,  the  pupil  be  trained 
in  the  practical  appUcation  of  the  abstract  truths  as  fast  as  they 
Practical  ^re  learned.  No  truth  is  well  learned  until  it  can  be  applied; 
I  ^fEjl^^'  and  it  would  be  quite  incredible  to  one  who  has  not  had  large  ob- 
servation, how  fully  one  may  appear  to  understand  a  geometrical 
truth,  and  yet  be  totally  unable  to  apply  it.  The  writer  has  examined  in 
geometry  hundreds  of  students  desiring  to  enter  college  in  "  advanced  stand- 
ing", and  has  made  this  a  matter  of  careful  observation.  For  example,  he 
has  usually  asked  such  students,  '  'How  do  you  find  the  area  of  a  spherical 
triangle?"  Generally  the  answer  has  been  promptly  given,  "Bymtiltiplying 
the  spherical  excess  by  the  tri-rectangular  triangle'" ;  and,  quite  generally,  the 
candidate  has  been  found  able  to  demonstrate  the  proposition.  But  in  no 
instance  has  the  examiner  ever  found  a  student,  who  had  not  been  trained 
in  the  practical  application  of  the  statement,  able  to  compute  the  area  of  a 
triangle  the  angles  of  which  are,  say  110°,  94°,  and  87°,  on  a  sphere,  the 
radius  of  which  is  2  feet.  In  fact,  they  could  tell  what  a  tri-rectangular 
triangle  is,  what  part  of  the  sphere  it  is.  and  what  the  spherical  excess  is; 
but  not  one  could  actually  find  the  number  of  square  inches  in  the  area  of 
the  triangle.  A  student  may  appear  to  have  thoroughly  mastered  solid 
geometry,  and  yet  be  totally  unable  to  solve  such  a  problem  as.  To  find  how 
many  barrels  of  water  a  cistern  in  the  form  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone  will 
contain.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  teacher  of  geometry  should  never 
allow  his  pupils  to  omit  the  practical  examples. 

V.  Geometrical  Invention.  —  This  term  is  used  to  designate  the  power 
to  discover  demonstrations  of  propositions  or  the  solution  of  problems. 
Many  excellent  teachers  quite  overrate  the  ordinary  student's  power  in  this 
direction.  Some  have  even  thought,  that,  from  the  first,  a  pupil  can  be  led 
to  discover  the  demonstrations  of  all  the  propositions.  Xew  classes  may,  in- 
deed, make  commendable  progress  in  geometry,  and  have  put  into 
Original  i\^q\^  hands  only  the  mere  statement  of  propositions;  but  it  will 
itonT"^  be  found  that  they  do  not  originate  the  demonstrations  which 
they  bring  into  the  class;  they  simply  look  them  up  in  other  text- 
books, and  thus  learn  them.  After  a  pupil  has  acquired  a  considerable 
stock  of  geometrical  knowledge,  any  real  test  will  show  that  original 
demonstrations  are  but  slowly  evolved,  even  of  the  simplest  propositions. 
Many  students  have  little  or  no  capacity  in  this  direction;  and.  therefore, 
to  make  it  the  staple  of  geometrical  teaching,  would  be  supreme  folly.  Some 
exercise  of  this  kind  may.  and  should,  be  given  from  an  early  stage  of  the 
study;  and  students  may  be  stimulated  and  helped  in  the  work,  so  that  all 
the  ability  for  such  exercise,  which  really  exists  in  the  class,  may  be 
brought  out;  but,  after  all.  there  is  no  reasonable  ground  to  expect  that 
any  large  amount  of  such  ability  can  be  developed  in  the  majority  of  stu- 
dents of  elementary  geometry.  Certainly,  this  is  not  the  purpose  for  which 
geometry  holds  its  eminent  place  in  the  curriculum  of  our  colleges.  It  is 
that  students  may  learn  what  a  logical  argument  is  and  how  to  frame  it, 


140  GERMAN  LAXGUAGE 

from  the  study  of  such  arguments,  carefully  elaborated  and  expressed  by 
the  ripest  culture.  What  but  the  most  clumsy  work  can  be  expected  from 
the  tyro  iu  framing  such  arguments,  if  he  has  not  had  much  study  of  the 
best  models  ?  To  put  a  demonstration  in  good  form,  as  well  as  to  evolve 
it,  is  the  ripest  fruit  of  scholarship,  not  the  daily  work  of  beginners;  the 
ability  to  do  eitht  r  is  to  be  acquired,  in  the  first  instance,  by  a  protracted 
and  careful  study  of  the  work  of  masters.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  these 
remarks  to  discourage  all  attempts  to  secure  original  demonstrations,  but  to 
guard  against  a  serious  error  into  which  enthusiastic  and  ambitious  teach- 
ers are  in  danger  of  falling;  and  the  conclusion  is,  that,  for  the  most  part, 
pupils  must  be  furnished  with  the  demonstrations  of  elementary  geometry, 
either  by  a  text-book,  or  by  the  hints  of  a  competent  and  judicious  teacher; 
and  that  it  is  best  that  it  should  be  so.  But  let  not  this  to])ic  of  geometrical 
invention  be  confounded  with  that  of  practical  exercise  in  applying  the 
truths  learned.  The  latter  is,  as  has  been  said,  essential  for  all,  but  especially 
important  for  those  who  are  dull  of  apprehension. 

VI.  Lastly,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  a  great  change  has  come  about 
within   the  hust  century,  in  reference  to  the  kind  of  demonstration  which  is 

admissible  in  geometry.  Formerly,  geometricians  were  totally 
and  time    *^'^^^®  ^^  admitting  any   conception  of  motion  or  lime  into  a 

geometrical  argument.  These  were  rigidly  excluded  as  foreign  to 
the  subject  and  as  defiling  its  purity.  Both  are  now  freely  admitted. 
Again,  the  infinitesimal  method  was  formerly  as  rigidly  excluded,  but  is 
now  coming  to  be  admitted.  These  methods  greatly  facilitate  geometrical 
inquiry,  and  are  now  freely  used  by  the  best  writers  and  teacliers.  (See 
Mathkmatics.) 

GERMAN  LANGUAGE,     The  German  language  ranks,  with  the 
English  and  French,  iu  value  and   importance,  above  all  the  other  lan- 

P^^gss  of  the  civilized  world.     It  is  very  extensively  studied  in 
'""  ■     the  literary  institutions  of  every  civilized   country,  and  as  a 
department  of  school  and  college  instruction,  continues  to  assume,  from 
year  to  year,  greater  prominence. 

The  method  of  studying  <j!erman,in  English  and  American  universities, 
colleges,  seminaries,  and  academies  is  aT)out  the  same  as  that  pursued  in 

the  study  of  French.  The  most  important  feature  which  broadly 
o/studM     distingui.shes  the  (German  language  from  the  French,  and  which 

an  intelligent  teacher  will  always  keep  in  view  from  the  very 
first  lesson  he  gives,  is  the  clo.se  resemblance  between  German  and  English 
words,  especially  those  used  in  common  life.  Many  of  these  words  are 
spelled  exactly  alike;  large  classes  of  other  words  show  so  slight  a  modifica- 
tion, that  the  pupils  recognize  them  at  once  (as  ]'ater,  Miittei;  Briider, 
Buck,  J  fa  lis),  and  .still  others  present  changes  made  according  to  certain 
laws  which  arc  easily  understood,  even  at  the  earliest  stage  of  instruction, 
and  by  the  most  yontliful  beginner  (as  ^e/i'?/,  ten;  Z//^»,  tin;  Tag,  day; 
srtgeji,  say).  By  a  .skillful  use  of  this  extensive  resemblance  of  the  two 
languages,  the  intelligent  teacher  has  it  in  his  power  to  give  to  the 
beginner,  in  a  few  lessons,  the  command  of  a  very  large  number  of  words. 
The  strange  lettere  which  seem  to  surround  the  first  lessons  in  German 
with  considerable  difliculty,  arc  quite  easily  learned  by  the  aid  of  words 
whiclx  are  substantially  the  same  in  German  as  in  l'"nglish.  "Whole  G'erman 


GERMAN  LANGUAGE  141 

sentences  can,  in  this  way,  be  at  once  understood;  and  when  translation 
forms  a  prominent  object  of  the  study,  the  pupil  should  begin  to  translate 
from  German  into  English,  as  soon  as  he  knows  the  letters.  For  exercise 
in  the  declensions  and  conjugations,  the  selection  of  cognate  words  for  the 
paradigms  likewise  facilitates  the  progress  of  the  pupils.  In  this  part  of 
the  grammar,  German  at  once  seems  to  the  beginner  to  be  more  com- 
plicated than  English,  and  presents  to  him  the  greatest  difficulties  he  has 
to  surmount;  among  which  maybe  enumerated  the  following:  (1)  The 
noun  in  German  has  four  cases,  and  the  plural  is  formed  in  four  different 
ways  as  far  as  its  termination  is  concerned,  besides  modifying  the  radical 
vowel;  (2)  Adjectives  and  adjective  pronouns  are  declined  in  three  different 
ways;  (3)  The  past  participle  generally  adds  the  prefix  ^re,  and,  in  compound 
verbs,  this  pretix,  in  many  cases,  is  placed  between  the  verb  and  the  particle 
with  which  it  is  compounded,  or  the  particle  is  detached  and  placed  at  the 
close  of  even  a  long  sentence.  In  constructing  exercises  for  the  study  of 
these  differences,  it  will  again  be  found  a  help  to  choose  for  the  paradigms 
words  similar  to  English  words,  or  such  as  are  common  to  both  languages, 
so  that  the  attention  of  the  pupil  may  be  concentrated  upon  the  learning 
of  the  inflectional  peculiarities.  It  is,  however,  not  only  the  resemblance 
of  German  and  English  words,  but  also  other  points  of  similarity,  in  the 
etymology  of  the  two  languages,  that  should  be  made  use  of.  Thus  the 
possessive  case  of  English  nouns  may  be  made  to  illustrate  not  only  the 
German  genitive,  but  the  entire  declension,  of  Avhich  the  English  possessive 
is  a  remnant.  A  reference  to  the  plural  forms  men,  women,  feet,  geese, 
mice,  will  explain  the  modification  of  a  large  number  of  German  nouns  in 
the  plural;  as  will  also  such  forms  as  children,  brethren,  and  j9e?ice.  The 
fact  that  the  division  of  verbs  into  strong  and  weak  is  the  same  in  both 
languages,  that  the  formation  of  the  principal  parts  of  both  is  similar  [see, 
saw,  seen  —  se-hen,  sah,ge-sehen;  love,  loved,  loved —  lieb-en,  liehte,  ge-liebt) 
and  that  even,  as  a  general  rule,  the  same  verbs  belong,  in  both  languages, 
to  the  one  or  to  the  other  conjugation,  is  easily  comprehended  even  by 
beginners,  and  greatly  assists  them  to  understand  the  structure  of  the 
foreign  language. 

The  comparison  of  the  German  language  with  the  English  should  not 
be  limited  to  the  points  just  mentioned;  but  all  the  peculiar  features  of 
German  should  be  noticed.  In  the  study  of  any  foreign  language, 
German  a  clear  understanding  of  the  most  conspicuous  characteristics  helps 
F^^Vh    *°  ^^  ^^  *^^  mind  a  clear  conception  of  the  language.    Among 
ngis  .   ^^^  features  of  the  German  grammar  to  which  special  attention 
should  be  called,  when  they  are  met  with  for  the  first  time,  are  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  The  gender  of  nouns  is  arbitrary,  and  many  nouns  that  are  neuter 
in  English  are  either  masculine  or  feminine  in  German;  (2)  One  or  more 
long  qualifying  adjuncts  may  intervene  between  the  article  and  its  noun; 
^3)  The  order  of  sequence  of  auxiliary  verbs  is  entirely  reversed  in  subjunct- 
ive propositions;  (4)  Prepositions  and  verbs  govern  three  different  cases  of 
the  noun;  (5)  The  object  precedes  the  verb  more  frequently  than  in  English. 
The  correct  pronunciation  of  German,  as  of  every  foreign  tongue,  must 
be  learned  by  imitating  the  teacher.     This  is  especially  the  case  with  the 
Pronun-   sounds   that  have  no   equivalent   in  English,  as  6',  v.,  ch,  the 
ciation.   guttural  g,  short  a,  r,  and  the  combinations  of  sp  and  St.    Their 


142  GIFTS 

number  is  comparatively  small;  and,  if  they  are  steadily  practiced, 
it  Y.'ill  require  only  a  short  time  to  learn  to  enunciate  them  correctly.  For 
a  full  treatment  of  this  subject,  see  Cychpopdia  of  Education. 

GIFTS,  Kindergarten,  the  term  used  by  Froebel  to  designate  the 
apparatus  devised  by  him  for  kindergarten  instruction,  inasniucTi  as  they 

are  not  used  by  the  teacher  h\xt  rjiv en  to  the  children,  as  the 
JJefimiion,  material  for  interesting  and  instructive  occupation,  by  the 
manipulation  of  -which  their  faculties  are  unfolded  in  accoi dance  with  the 
develophig  method  (q.  v.).  These  .9 //'As  are  grouped  in  sets,  numbered  from 
1  to  20,  and  include  the  following,  of  which,  however,  Kos.  8  to  20  did 

not  originate  with  Froebel  directly:  (1)  Six  soft  bulls  of  various 
thn'^  colors,  the  object  of  the  use  of  which  is  to  teach  color  (primary 

and  secondary),  and  direction  (forward  and  backward,  right  and 
left,  up  and  down);  also  to  train  the  eye,  and  to  exercise  the  hands,  arms, 
and  feet  in  various  plays.  (2)  Sphere,  cube,  and  cylinder,  designed  to  teach 
/or?H,  by  directing  the  attention  of  the  child  to  resemblances  and  differences 
in  objects.  This  is  done  by  pointing  out,  explaining,  and  counting  the  sides, 
edges,  and  corners  of  the  cube,  and  by  showing  how  it  differs,  in  these 
respects,  from  the  sphere  and  cylinder.  The  manipulation  by  the  child 
should,  of  course,  precede  this  demonstration  by  the  teacher.  'Ihe  child's 
self-activity  will  pronii)t  it  to  place  these  forms  in  various  po.'^itions  and 
combinations,  so  as  to  realize  in  its  conceptions  eveiy  thing  that  is 
analogous  or  dissimilar  in  them.  (3)  A  large  cube  divided  into  eight 
equal  cubes,  the  object  being  to  teach  both  form  and  nnmber,  also  to  give 
a  rudimental  idea  of  fractions.  (4)  A  larrje  cube  divided  into  eight  oblong 
blocks,  designed  to  teach  number  and  a  simple  variety  of  form  (cube  and 
parallelopiped).  (5)  A  large  cube  divided  into  27  equal  cubes,  three  of 
the  latter  being  subdivided  into  half  cubes,  and  three  others  into  quarter 
cubes  (forming  triangular  prisms).  'J'his  is  a  further  continuation  and 
complement  of  (3),  but  affording  nmch  ani])ler  means  of  combination  both 
as  to  form  and  vumber.  (6)  A  large  cube  so  divided  as  to  consist  of  18 
whole  oblong  blocks,  three  similar  blocks  divided  lengthwise,  and  six 
divided  breadthwise,  —  a  still  further  continuation  of  the  ideas  involved 
in  (3).  (7)  Triangular  and  quadrangidar  tablets  of  polished  wood,  afford- 
ing the  means  of  further  exercise  in  reversing  the  position  of  forms  and 
combining  them;  and  presenting,  in  addition,  illustrations  of  jjlane 
stnfaces,  instead  of  solids,  as  in  the  previous  gifts.  '1  his  arrangement, 
placing  the  surfaces  after  the  solids,  recognizes  an  important  principle  of 
education,  —  that  we  should  pass  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract  (see 
Form),  the  square  being  a  side  of  the  cube,  and  a  triangle  deduced  from 
the  prism.  {S)  Sticks  for  laying,  —  wooden  sticks  about  13  inches  long, 
to  be  cut  into  various  lengths  by  the  teacher  or  pupil,  as  occasion  may 
require.  'I'hese  sticks,  like  most  of  the  previous  gifts,  are  designed  to 
teach  numerical  proportions.  'J'he  multiplication  table  may  be  practically 
learned  by  means  of  this  gift.  The  forms  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
and  the  Koman  and  Arabic  numerals,  may  al.'^o  be  learned.  (9)  Bings 
for  ring-laying,  consisting  of  whole  and  half  rings  of  various  sizes,  in  wire, 
for  forming  figures;  designed  to  develop  further  ideas  of  form,  also  to 
afford  a  means  for  developing  constructiveness  of  the  pupils,  and  practice 
in  composing  simple  designs.     (10)  Droning  slates  and  paper,  consisting 


GIRLS  —  GLOBE  143 

of  slates  ruled  in  squares,  and  paper  ruled  in  squares,  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  the  pupil  to  draw  or  copy  simple  figures,  in  a  methodical  manner, 
the  ruling  aiding  them  in  the  adjustment  of  proportions.      (11)  Perforat- 
ing paper,  ruled  in  squares  on  one  side  only,  with  perforating  needles, 
affording   more    advanced    practice   in   producing    forms,  and  executing 
simple  designs.      (12)  Embroidering  materinh  to  \)Q  used  for  transferring 
the   designs   executed    on  the    perforating  paper,  by  embroidering  them 
with  colored  worsted   or    silk    on  card  board.     (13)  Paper  for  cutting: 
squares  of  paper  are  folded,  cut  according  to  certain  rules,  and  formed  into 
figures.     The  child's  inclination  for  using  the  scissors  is  thus  ingeniously 
turned  to  account,  and  made  to    produce  very  gratifying  results.     (14) 
Weainng  paper:   strips    of   colored   paper   are,  by  means  of  a  steel  or 
wooden  needle  of  peculiar  construction,  woven  into  a  differently  colored 
sheet  of  paper,  which  is  cut  into   strips    tlu-oughout   its   entire   surface, 
except  a  margin  at  each  end  to  keep  the  strips  in  their  places.     A  very 
great  variety  of  figures  is  thus  produced,  and    the    inventive  powers  of 
the  child  are  constantly  brought  into  requisition.     (15)  Plaiting  materia/, 
including   sets    of  flats  for    interlacing  so  as    to  form    geometrical   and 
fancy  figures.     (16)  Jointed  slats  (gonigraphs),  for  forming  angles  and 
geometrical  figures.     (17)  Paper  for  intertwining:  paper  strips  of  various 
colors,  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  folded  lengthwise,  used  to  represent  a 
variety  of  geometrical  and  fancy  figures,  by  plaiting  them  according  to 
certain  rules.     (18)  Paper  for  folding,  consisting  of  square,  rectangular, 
and  triangular  pieces,  with  which  variously  shaped  objects  may  be  formed. 
(19)  Material  for  peas  ivork,  consisting  of  wires  of  various  lengths  pointed 
at  the  ends,  which  are  passed  through  peas,  that  have  been  soaked  in  water 
for  six  or  eight  hours;  these  are  then  used  to  imitate  various  objects  and 
geometrical  figures.      Coi-k  cubes  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  peas, 
as  being  more  convenient.     (20)  Material  for  modeling:  modeling  knives, 
of  wood,  and   modeling  boards,  by  means   of  which   various  forms  are 
modeled  in  bees-wax,  clay,  putty,  or  some  other  soft  substance.     These 
gifts  thus  represent  every  kind  of  technical  activity,  from  the  mere  collec- 
tion of  the  raw  material  to  the  delicate  processes  of  design  as  well  as  plastic 
.         art.     They  ai'e  designed  to  develop  not  only  the  constructive 
Design,     ability  of  the  pupil,  through  his  natural  impulse  to  activity,  and 
by  the  exercise  of  the  faculty  of  conception,  so  characteristic  of  childhood, 
but  by  their  countless  combinations  of  color  and  form  to  lay  the  foundation 
for  a  complete  development  of  the  esthetic  nature.     They  address,  at  once, 
his  intellect,  his  emotions,  and  his  physical  activities;  while,  as  the  child 
works  out  the  results  himself,  he  gains  confidence  in  his  own  ability  to 
surmount  obstacles,  and  thus  learns  an  enduring  lesson  of  self-reliance. 
Kindergarten  gifts  and  occupation  material  suitable  for  schools  or  families, 
are  put  up  in  sets  and  sold  in  boxes  convenient  for  use. 

GIRLS,  Education  of.     See  Female  Educatiox. 

GLOBE,  Artificial  {Latin,  globus),  a  hollow  sphere,  made  of  metal, 
plaster,  or  pasteboard,  used  as  a  model  of  the  earth,  and  having  delineated 
upon  it  all  the  various  natural  and  political  divisions  of  the  terrestrial  sur- 
face, together  with  the  circles,  etc.,  used  in  mathematical  geography. 
Through  its  center,  runs  an  iron  axis  the  two  ends  of  which  project,  and 
are  fastened  to  a  circle,  or  ring,  of  brass,  within  which  the  globe  can  be 


144  GONIGRAPH  — GOVEUKMEN'T 

turned  around.  This  ring,  called  the  brazen  meridian,  is  graduated  so  as 
to  indicate  degrees  of  latitude,  and  by  rotating  the  globe  can  be  made  to 
represent  the  meridian  of  any  place.  'J'he  artificial  globe  is  also  usually 
surrounded  with  a  broad  horizontal  ring  of  wood,  called  the  icoodtn  horizon, 
which  has  two  slots  in  which  the  meridian,  and  with  it  the  globe  move,  so 
that  either  pole  may  be  elevated  or  depressed,  and  the  horizon  adapted  to 
any  place.  I'he  upper  surface  of  the  wooden  horizon  is  divided  into  several 
concentric  circles,  representing  degrees  of  amplitude  and  azimuth,  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  the  points  of  the  comjiass,  the  divisions  of  the  year  into  months 
and  days.  etc.  Such  a  globe  is  called  a  terrestrial  globe.  A  celestial  gXohe 
differs  from  it  in  representing  the  appearance  of  the  starry  heavens,  constel- 
lations, etc.,  as  if  seen  from  the  center  of  the  globe.  Globes  of  much 
simpler  construction  are  made  for  elementary  instruction. 

GONIGRAPH  (Gr.  ^uvia,  an  angle,  and  -)pa(pi:iv,  to  write),  an  in- 
strument used  in  kindergarten  exercises  and  in  object-teaching,  to  illustrate 
the  nature  and  formation  of  angles  and  polygons.  It  consists  of  a  series 
of  narrow  jointed  slats  of  equal  length,  by  the  different  combinations  of 
which  figures  of  various  shapes  may  be  formed.  The  number  of  slats,  or 
links,  varies  from  3  to  as  many  as  1 G,  or  even  more.  As  a  piece  of  kinder- 
garten apparatus  (gift),  the  gonigraph  may  be  made  the  means  of  much 
instructive  entertainment  to  a  young  child,  who  from  its  manipulation  will 
acquire  ideas  of  a  great  variety  of  figures.  In  the  more  advanced  object- 
teaching,  in  connection  Avith  the  subject  oiform.  it  will  be  found  very  use- 
ful, as  well  as  attractive.  Gonigraphs  are  usually  sold  in  sets  as  a  part  of 
the  ap|)aratus  necessary  for  kindergarten  work.     (See  Gifts.) 

GOVERNMENT,  School,  like  the  government  of  a  state,  must  be 

based   upon   the    establishment   of  authority,   which  includes  not   only 

.        the  right  to  make  laws,  but  the  power,  as  well  as  the  right,  to 

^■'"*"  execute  them.  These  powers,  in  every  civilized  state  and  com- 
munity, are  distributed  among  different  persons,  so  as  to  prevent  central- 
ized authority  leading  to  despotism;  but,  in  the  little  community  of  the 
school  room,  they  must,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  be  possessed  by  one 
])erson.  (General  rules  for  the  management  of  a  school,  it  is  true,  may  be 
prescribed  by  the  school  officers  to  whom  the  teacher  is  amenable:  but  the 
actual  government  of  the  school,  that  which  converts  it  from  a  chaotic,  dis- 
orderly crowd  of  children  into  a  regular  organization,  under  control  and 
discipline,  must  be  exclusively  the  work  of  the  teacher,  hence  called  the 
school-master.  Force  of  character  in  the  teacher  is  the  basis  of  discipline. 
"Divest  teaching"',  says  Kellogg,  in  School  Ma7iagement  (18S0),  "  of  the 
personal  force  element,  and  of  the  subtle  influence  of  the  teacher,  and  little 
is  left". 

The  character  of  the  school  government  depends  upon  the  manner  as 
well  as  the  degree  in  which  the  teacher's  authority  is  established;  and  the 
influence  of  the  school  ujion  the  intellectual  and  moral  character  of  its 
pupils  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  government  maintained. 
denendent  ^'^  school  can  be  efficient  without  order,  and  order  can  only 
'  result  from  judicious  and  effective  government.  The  latter  must, 
in  all  cases,  depend  upon  (1)  the  rules  or  requirements  laid  down,  and 
(2)  the  manner  in  which  they  are  enforced.  Government  is  often  impaired 
by  unwise  legislation  —  unwise  in  the  kind  of  laws  enacted,  or  in  their 


GOTEENMENT  145 

number.  The  rules  made  for  the  government  of  a  school  should  be  as  few 
and  as  simple  as  possible.    A  multiplicity  of  set  regulations  confuses  the 

pupils,  and  tends  to  multiply  offenses.     Besides,  the  children, 

by  the  habit  of  complying  with  a  kind  of  written  law,  are  apt 
to  think  every  thing  right  that  is  not  specifically  forbidden,  and  thus  fail 
to  exercise  their  conscience;  that  is,  in  their  attention  to  the  vialaprohibita, 
they  lose  sight  of  the  mala  per  se.  "  If  a  school",  says  D.  P.  Page,  "  is  to 
be  governed  by  a  code  of  laws,  the  pupils  will  act  upon  the  principle  that 
whatever  is  not  proscribed  is  admissible.  Consequently,  without  inquir- 
ing whether  an  act  is  right,  their  only  inquiry  will  be,  is  it  forbidden  ? 
Now,  no  teacher  was  ever  yet  so  wise  as  to  make  laws  for  every  case;  the 
consequence  is,  he  is  daily  perplexed  with  unforeseen  troubles,  or  with  some 
ingenious  evasions  of  his  inflexible  code.  In  all  this  matter,  the  worst 
feature  is  the  fact  that  the  child  judges  of  his  acts  by  the  law  of  the  teacher 
rather  than  by  the  law  of  his  conscience,  and  is  thus  in  danger  of  pervert- 
ing and  blunting  the  moral  sense".  Government  by  positive  enactments 
is,  therefore,  to  be  dispensed  with  as  much  as  possible;  but  such  rules  as 
are  made  should  be  strictly  and  uniformly  enforced.  These  rules  constitute 
what  may  be  called  school  legislation^  and  are  not  to  be  confounded  with 
requirements  of  a  less  formal  character,  which  the  pupil's  own  intelligence 
and  sense  of  right  are  to  be  trained  to  recognize  without  particular  enunci- 
ation, nor  with  those  moral  precepts  which  are  addressed  rather  to  the 
pupil  as  an  individual,  aud  therefore  do  not  directly  concern  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  school.  AVe  here  treat  of  school  government  in  the  strict  sense 
•  of  the  term.     In  the  enforcement  of  school  legislation,  however, 

menT'   ^^  ^'^^  ^^  ^^^P  "^  ^^^^  *^^^  good  of  the  pupU  as  well  as  the  good 

of  the  school,  but  primarily  the  latter.  The  principle  is  this:  The 
school  is  an  organization  designed  to  be  the  means  of  affording  an  education 
to  a  large  number  of  pupils,  and  the  school  laws  are  made  to  protect  that 
organization,  and  render  it  effective  in  the  carrying  out  of  its  proper  object; 
hence,  the  welfare  of  the  school  must  be  paramount  to  that  of  any 
individual  pupil.  The  violation  of  a  rule  may,  indeed,  be  sometimes  over- 
looked without  injury  to  the  offender,  perhaps  to  his  benefit;  but,  as  such 
a  course  tends  to  weaken  or  destroy  the  school  government,  the  law  must 
be  uniformly  enforced.  No  enforcement  of  law  can  be  accomplished  with- 
out the  punishment  of  the  offender;  hence,  the  kind  of  school  punishments 
that  are  suitable  under  the  various  circumstances  that  arise  becomes  a 
matter  for  the  careful  consideration  of  the  teacher.  Whether  in  enforcing 
obedience  to  wholesome  regulations,  corporal  punishment  should  be  resorted 
to,  and,  if  so,  to  what  extent  and  in  what  manner,  forms  also  an  important 
part  of  the  general  discussion  of  school  government.  But  there  must  be 
prevention  as  well  as  correction  —  rewards,  as  incentives  to  obedience  and 
good  conduct,  as  well  as  punishments  to  chastise  the  wrong- doer,  and  deter 

others  from  wrong-doing.  A  system  of  rewards  has  a  very 
Meway  as.  ji^pQ^f^j^j^i;  bearing  upon  school  government  when  they  are  dis- 
pensed with  uniformity  and  equity.  Under  this  head  are  included  merit 
marks,  certificates  and  diplomas  of  proficiency  and  good  conduct,  and 
prizes.  Many  questions  arise  in  connection  with  the  administration  of 
school  government  in  this  respect.  The  general  efficacy  and  propriety  of 
rewards  cannot  be  doubted.    They  appeal  to  a  principle  of  human  nature 


146  GOVERNMENT 

universally  operative.  "Whatever",  says  Jewell,  "  may  be  possible  in  the 
mature  man,  in  the  line  of  that  sublime  abstraction,  'Virtue  is  its  own 
reward',  the  child  is  neither  equal  to  Buch  abstractions,  nor  are  they 
demanded  of  liim". 

The   efficacy  of   school  government  must  depend  very  much  on  the 
manner   in    which    the    teacher    exercises  the  authority  conferred  upon 

him  in  virtue  of  his  office.  If  he  bases  it  upon  force,  if 
Conduct  of  ^jjg  language  he  addresses  to  his  pupils  be  uniformly  that 
■  of  conmaand,  threatening,  or  angry  rebuke,  there  will  be 
engendered  in  their  minds  a  feeling  of  antagonism,  from  which  will 
result  disobedience,  and  occasionally  open  rebellion.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  he  is  kind  and  considerate,  but  at  the  same  time  firm  and  resolute, 
he  will  gain  first  the  respect  of  his  pupils  and  then  their  affection. 
When  that  is  accomplished,  the  government  of  his  school  will  be  quite 
easy.     (See  AuTnoRiTy.)     The    following  are  wise  suggestions  in  regard 

to  the  proper  course  of  the  teacher  in  obtaining  and  preserving 
Sugrjes-    ^jjg  control  of    his  school:     "(1)  Endeavor  to    convince   your 

scholars  that  you  are  their  friend,  —  that  you  aim  at  their 
improvement,  and  desire  their  good.  It  will  not  take  long  to  satisfy 
them  of  this,  if  you  are  so  in  reality.  (2)  Never  give  a  command 
which  you  are  not  resolved  to  see  obeyed.  (3)  Try  to  create  through- 
out the  school  a  popular  sentiment  in  favor  of  order  and  virtue.  It  is 
next  to  impossible  to  carry  into  effect,  for  any  length  of  time,  a  reg- 
ulation, however  important,  which  is  opposed  to  j)ublic  opinion".  Fcl- 
lenberg  strongly  insists  upon  this  as  the  most  efficient  means  of  school 
government.  "The  pupil",  he  says,  "can  seldom  resist  the  force  of  truth 
when  he  finds  himself  condemned  by  the  common  voice  of  his  com- 
panions, and  is  often  more  humbled  by  censure  from  his  equals,  than 
by  any  of  the  admonitions  of  his  superiors".  To  tlie  above  important 
injunctions  for  the  teacher  should  be  added  the  following:  Observe  ia 
yoiu-  conduct  toward  your  pupils  a  stricj_impartiality.  Children  are 
keen  observers,  and  at  once  detect  tlie^sTTghtest  indications  of  favoritism; 
and  nothing  more  effectually  than  this  destroys  their  respect  for  the 
teacher,  and  undermines  his  authority.  Tact  and  self-control  will  enable 
the  teacher  to  dispense,  to  a  very  great  extent,  with  any  decided  dem- 
onstration of  authority.  "There  is",  says  Page,  "such  a  thing  as  keep- 
ing a  school  too  still  by  over-government.  A  man  of  firm  nerve  can, 
by  keeping  up  a  constant  constraint  both  in  himself  and  pupils,  force  a 
death-like  silence  upon  hLs  school.  You  can  hear  a  pin  drop  at  any 
time,  and  the  figure  of  every  child  is  as  if  moulded  in  cast-iron.  But 
be  it  remembered,  this  is  the  stillness  of  constraint,  not  the  stillness  of 
activity.  There  should  be  silence  in  school,  a  serene  and  soothing  quiet; 
but  it  should,  if  possible,  be  the  quiet  of  cheerfulness  and  agreeable 
devotion  to  study,  rather  than  the  'palsy  of  fear"'.  (See  Fear.)  One 
of  the  most  important  means  of  effective  school  government  is^  to  keep_ 
the  pupils  constantly  busy,  to  awaken  in  their  minds  an  interest  in  their 
studies,  to  vary  the  exercises  so  as  to  prevent  tedious  monotony,  to  have 
special  methods  of  relief,  after  their  minds  have  become  wearied  by 
close  attention.  For  this  purpose,  in  primary  schools,  in  which  very  young 
children  ara  taught,  movement  exercises  of  a  simple  character  may  be 


GRADE  —  GRADED  SCHOOLS         147 

resorted  to;  and,  in  all  schools,  vocal  music,  which  always  exerts  the  most 
pleasing  and  satisfactory  influence.  Calisthenics  and  gymnastics  may  be 
employed  with  good  effect.  In  short,  if  the  school  is  conducted  in  such  a 
way  as  to  recognize  the  peculiar  nature,  disposition,  and  wants  of  children, 
the  school  government  will  be  found  to  involve  but  little  difficulty. 

GBADE  (Lat.  gracilis,  a  step),  the  relative  standing  of  schools,  classes, 
or  pupils,  in  a  system  of  education.  Thus  education,  or  instruction,  is 
designated,  according  to  its  grade,  prmiary  or  elementary,  secondary,  and 
superior  or  higher.  A  course  of  study  is  divided  into  grades  for  conveni- 
ence in  classification,  all  the  pupils  in  each  class  being  supposed  to  be 
nearly  of  the  same  degree  of  proficiency.  The  number  of  grades  into  which 
a  course  of  study  should  be  divided  is  dictated  by  considerations  of  expedi- 
ency and  convenience.  The  grades,  however,  should  be  arranged  so  as  to 
assign  proper  proportions  of  work  for  the  several  portions  of  time  into 
which  the  school  year,  or  the  period  of  the  entire  curriculum,  is  divided. 
The  arrangement  of  grades  is  also  beneficial  in  definitely  marking  the  prog- 
ress of  the  pupil,  and  thus  affording  him  encouragement  to  proceed  by 
regular  promotion  from  grade  to  gi'ade.     (See  Class.) 

GRADED  SCHOOLS  are  usually  defined  as  schools  in  which  the 
pupils  are  classified  according  to  their  progress  in  scholarship  as  compared 
with  a  course  of  study  divided  into  grades,  pupils  of  the  same  or 
Definition.  ^  similar  degree  of  proficiency  being  placed  in  the  same  class. 
An  ungraded  school,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  in  which  the  pupils  are 
taught  individually,  each  one  being  advanced  as  far  and  as  fast  as  circum- 
stances permit,  without  regard  to  the  progress  of  other  pupils.  The  graded 
system  is  thus  based  upon  classification;  and  its  efficacy  as  a  system  must 
depend  very  greatly  upon  the  accuracy  with-Nvhich  the  classifica- 
Qrades  ^^^^^  ^^^  -^^^^  made.  Grades,  however,  are  not  to  be  confounded 
on  c  asses.  ^.^^^  classes;  the  former  are  divisions  of  the  course  of  study 
based  upon  various  considerations,  the  latter  are  divisions  of  the  school 
based  upon  uniformity  of  attainments.  In  a  small  school,  the  same  number 
of  grades  may  be  needed  as  in  a  large  school,  the  course  of  study  being  the 
same,  and  the  promotions  being  made  with  equal  frequency;  hence,  as  the 
number  of  classes  mitst  be  smaller,  it  will  be  necessary  that  each  class 
should  pursue  two  or  more  grades  simultaneously  or  in  succession;  that  is 
to  say,  the  promotions  from  grade  to  grade  will  be  more  frequent  than 
from  class  to  class.  On  the  other  hand,  in  a  large  school,  the  number  of 
classes  may  be  greater  than  that  of  the  grades,  which  will  necessitate  the 
forming  of  two  or  more  classes,  under  separate  teachers,  in  the  same  grade. 
In  the  management  of  a  large  school,  this  will  be  found  to  be  better  than 
a  subdivision  of  the  grades,  requiring  either  an  extension  of  the  time  for 
completing  the  course,  or  greater  frequency  in  the  promotions. 

The  advantages  of  the  graded  system  have  been  thus  enumerated: 

(1)  They  economize  the  labor  of  instruction;  (2)  They  reduce  the  cost  of 

instruction,  since  a  smaller  number  of  teachers  are  required  for 

Graded'^    effective  work  in  a  classified  or  graded  school;  (3)  They  make 

sys  em.      ^.^^  instruction  more  effective,  inasmuch  as  the  teacher  can  more 

readily  hear  the  lessons  of  an  entire  class  than  of  the  pupils  separately, 

and  thus  there  will  be  better  opportunity  for  actual  teaching,  explanation, 

drill,  etc.;  (4)  They  facilitate  good  government  and  discipUne,  because  all 


148  GRADUATE  —  GRAMMAR 

the  pupils  are  kept  constantly  under  the  direct  control  and  instruction  of 
the  teacher,  and,  besides,  are  kept  constantly  busy;  (5)  They  afford  a  better 
means  of  inciting  pupils  to  industry,  by  promoting  their  ambition  to  excel, 
inasmucli  as  there  is  a  constant  competition  among  the  pupils  of  a  class, 
which  cannot  exist  when  the  pupils  are  instructed  separately.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  objections  have  been  urged  against  the  system  of  graded  schools, 
chief  among  which  is,  that  the  interests  of  the  individual  pupil  are  often 
sacrificed  to  those  of  the  many,  the  individual  being  merged  in  the  mass. 
GRADUATE  (Lat.  yraduare,  from  gradiis,  a  step  or  degree),  to  con- 
fer an  academic  degree,  thus  advancing  to  a  higher  rank  in  scholarship; 
also,  to  receive  a  degree  from  a  college  or  university.  A  person  is  said  to 
graduate  when  he  takes  a  degree,  and  the  college  or  university  is  said  to 
graduate  a  student  when  it  admits  him  to  an  honorable  standing  as  a  scholar 
by  conferring  a  degree.  The  person  who  thus  takes  a  degree,  is  called  a 
(jritdnnte.     (See  Degrees.) 

GRAMMAR.  The  study  of  grammar  now  constitutes,  in  every 
civilized  country,  an  essential  part  of  the  learning  of  languages,  both  the 
vernacular  and  foreign.  Opinions,  however,  still  widely  differ  as  to  the 
place  which  grammar  should  occupy  in  the  study  of  language,  the  method 
by  which  it  should  be  taught,  the  point  of  time  at  which  it  should  be 
begun,  and  the  amount  of  time  which  should  be  devoted  to  it.  There  is 
at  present  a  more  general  agreement  among  educators  than  at  any  previous 
time,  that  not  only  is  a  grammatical  knowledge  necessary  for  a  good 
command  of  any  language,  but  that  thorough  training  in  the  rules  of 
grammar  is  one  of  the  best  means  to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  mind, 
and  is  especially  calculated  to  promote  correct  and  logical  thinking.  (See 
Grammar,  Extiusii;  P]nglish,  Study  oi\)  For  a  full  treatment  of  this 
subject  see  Ci/clopcvdia  of  Education. 

GRAMMAR,  English.  Probably,  there  is  no  subject  that  has 
been  taught  with  so  great  a  disregard  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 

teaching  as  English  grammar;  and  there  is  certainly  none  that 
Errors.  ^^^  g^  imperfectly  attained  its  practical  aim  —  correctness  in 
the  use  of  language.  This  has  arisen  from  two  errors  of  procedure:  (1)  an 
attempt  to  teach  definitions  without  develojnng  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
the  ideas  underlying  them,  and  rules  previous  to  an  illustration  of  their 
necessity;  and  (2)  confining  the  instruction  to  merely  theoretical  and 
critical  work,  without  sufficient  practice  in  the  application  of  principles 
and  rules  to  the  actual  use  of  language.     The  introduction  of  analysis  was 

the  result  of  an  effort  to  reform  the  first  of  these  errors;  and  the 
"  ""  '■^^'^'  language-les.son  system,  a  reaction  against  the  second.  Grammar 
being,  distinctively,  the  sciCTice  o/'^/^e  ,s<?»toice,  the  preliminary  step  in  all 
grammatical  instruction  must  be,  to  give  to  the  pupil  a  clear  and  correct 
idea  of  what  constitutes  a  sentence,  by  presenting  for  his  examination  and 
analysis  examples  of  sentences  of  a  simple  structure,  by  analyzing  which  he 
will  easily  be  made  to  see  what  principal  parts  must  enter  into  their  com- 
position, and   how   other   parts  arc   used  as   adjuncts.     (See  Analysis, 

Grammatical.)  'i"he  outline  of  a  complete  scheme  of  teaching 
l^'siem  of  ^ammar  in  all  its  stages  is  presented  in  the  following  points: 
nrammar    (^)   I'rinciples,  definitions,   and  rules   should   be   progressively 

taught  by  requiring  tlie  pupil  to  analyze,  and  also  to  compose. 


GRAMMAR  149 

classified  sentences  commencing  with  those  of  the  simplest  construction, 
and  passing  gradually  to  such  as  are  of  th^  most  complex  structure ;  (2)  No 
definition  or  rule  should  be  committed  to  memory  and  formally  recited 
until  the  pupil,  by  sufficient  practice,  has  obtained  a  clear  conception  of 
the  office  of  the  word  defined,  and  the  nature  of  the  usage  which  the  rule 
is  intended  to  guide.  For  example,  it  is  absurd  to  try  to  teach  a  child  the 
meaning  of  a  participle  or  a  relative  pronoun  at  an  elementary  stage  of  the 
instruction,  because  the  structures  in  which  alone  they  can  occur  are  too 
complex  to  be  understood  at  that  stage.  And  it  is  equally  absurd  to 
require  a  child  to  commit  to  memory  the  rule,  "  A  verb  must  agree 
with  its  subject  or  nominative  in  person  and  number",  until  by  the 
comparison  of  a  number  of  sentences  illustrating  this  usage,  he  is  made  to 
understand  what  is  meant  by  agreement  in  grammar,  and  how  expressions 
may  be  incorrect  by  a  failure  to  observe  this  rule.  According  to  this 
method,  the  pupil  is  first  made  acquainted  with  the  distinction  of  subject 
and  predicate,  as  being  the  essential  parts  of  every  sentence.  This  forms 
the  basis  for  teaching  him  the  two  parts  of  speech,  —  the  verb  and  the 
noun.  From  this  point,  the  sentence  may  be  complicated  by  the  successive 
insertion  of  modifying  words,  phrasas,  or  clauses,  so  as  to  illustrate  not 
only  the  nature  and  use  of  each  of  the  parts  of  speech,  but  every  peculiar 
structure.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  example  of  a  sentence 
thus  expanded:  (1)  Boiis  learn.  (2)  Tlie  boys  learn.  (3)  The  studious 
boys  learn.  (4)  The  studious  boys  learn  rapidly.  (5)  The  studious  boys 
learn  their  lessons.  (G)  The  studious  boys  learn  their  lessons  m  school. 
(7)  The  boys  a7id  girls  learn.  (8)  The  boys  learn,  but  the  girls  do  not 
learn.  (9)  The  boys  who  study  will  learn.  Of  course,  each  sentence  here 
given  is  only  a  specimen  of  what  may  be  used  at  each  step;  and  when  these 
several  steps  have  been  taken,  the  pupil  will  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
the  functions  of  the  different  parts  of  speech.  Thus,  in  (1),  he  learns  the 
noun  and  the  verb;  in  (2),  the  article  is  added;  in  (3),  the  adjective;  in  (4), 
the  adverb;  in  (5),  the  pronoun;  in  (6),  the  preposition;  in  (7),  the  con- 
junction, as  a  connective  of  words;  in  (8),  the  conjunction,  as  a  connective 
of  sentences;  in  (9),  the  relative  pronoun.  After  much  preliminary  oral 
instruction  of  this  kind  the  pupil  may  be  required  to  learn  simple  defi- 
nitions. Underlying  the  whole  process,  it  will  be  perceived,  is  the 
analysis  of  the  sentence,  jjnrsing  coming  in  at  a  later  stage,  as  the  appli- 
cation to  particular  sentences,  according  to  a  given  pra:cis,  of  the  defini- 
tions and  rules  learned.  This  is  the  method  recommended  by 
Analysis  prominent  educators  of  the  present  day.  "  The  analysis  of  a 
n^li  a  sentence",  says  Wickersham,  "  consists  in  finding  its  elements, 
or  in  reducing  it  to  the  parts  of  speech,  of  which  it  is  composed. 
Parsing  consists  in  finding  out  thase  parts  of  speech  and  determining  their 
properties  and  relations.  Both  should  be  combined,  as  is  the  case  in 
similar  operations  in  other  sciences.  The  botanist  analyzes  a  plant,  and 
then  names  and  describes  its  several  parts.  The  anatomist  dissects  a  sub- 
ject, and  then  characterizes  the  organs  thus  brought  to  his  notice.  Grammar 
can  be  studied  successfully  in  no  other  way.  Parsing,  without  a  preceding- 
analysis,  can  lead  but  to  a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  organic 
structure  of  sentences".  To  the  value  of  the  analytical  method,  Prof. 
Whitney  thus  bears  witness:  "  Give  me  a  man  Avho  can,  with   full  iu- 


ir,0  .  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS 

telligcnce,  take  to  pieces  an  English  sentence,  brief  and  not  too  complicat€d 
even,  and  I  will  welcome  him  as  bettei-  prepared  for  further  study  in  other 
languages  than  if  he  had  read  both  Caesar  and  Virgil,  and  could  parse  them 
in  the  routine  style  in  which  they  are  often  parsed".  Pareing  should  not 
be  made  a  routine;  when  it  becomes  such,  it  is  worse  than  useless.  The 
constant  application  of  complicated  definitions  and  rules  derived  from  a 
lann-uage  of  inflections,  to  English  words  and  sentences  having  scarcely  an 
inflection,  is  to  the  pupil  a  senseless  process,  and  must  only  tend  to  dull, 
instead  of  cultivating  and  sharpening,  his  intellectual  faculties.  It  makes 
him,  as  has  been  .said,  a  "  pareing  machine".     The  definitions  and  rules  of 

English  grammar  should  be  simpUfied,  recognizing  the  fact  that 
Definitions  g^giigij  jg  j^ot  an  inflectional  language,  except  in  a  very  few 

particulars;  and  hence,  that  the  principles  of  agreement  and 
government  have  scarcely  any  application.  The  multiplying  of  rules  that 
regulate  nothing  is  idle.  Thus,  of  what  use  it  is  to  cause  a  child  to  repeat, 
in  parsing,  twenty  times  perhaps  in  a  single  lesson,  the  so-called  syntactical 
rule.  "Adjectives  relate  to  nouns  and  pronouns",  when  he  has  already 
learned  as  a  definition  that  "Adjectives  are  words  added  to  nouns  and 
pronouns?"  A  large  portion  of  the  rules  of  syntax  laid  down  in  most 
text-books  are  rather  a  repetition  of  the  definitions  comprehended  in  ety- 
mology than  separate  rules  necessary  to  guide  us  in  tlie  construction  of 
sentences.  All  such  needless  machinery  should  be  eliminated.  The  appli- 
cation of  the  terms  ca.sr?,  gender,  person,  and  all  other  designations  of  in- 
flectional variations  of  Avords,  should  be  kept  within  the  narrow  limits 
prescribed  by  the  simplicity  of  the  language.  In  most  systems  of  grammar, 
however,  we  find  these  terms  used  in  so  ambiguous  a  way  as  almost 
hopelessly  to  obscure  the  subject  and  perplex  the  learner.  Sometimes,  for 
example,  case  is  used  to  indicate  a  form  or  inflection,  at  others,  a  mere 
relation  witliout  change  of  form ;  while  the  fact  to  be  taught  is,  that  where 
there  is  no  inflection  there  is  no  case.  The  rule  tliat  "  a  noun  which  is 
the  subject  of  a  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case"  is,  in  English, 
useless  and  absurd.  The  senseless  machinery  of  English  grammar,  as  it 
has  been  generally  taught,  has  brought  the  whole  subject  under  reproba- 
tion, as  being  useless  in  an  elementary  school  curriculum,  and  as  superseded 
in  that  of  the  high  school  and  college,  by  the  study  of  I^atin;  while  there  is 
no  doubt  that  college  graduates,  in  the  United  States,  are  generally  in 
nothing  so  deficient  as  in  a  ])ractical  and  critical  knowledge  of  their  own 
language.  "While  it  is  very  true  that  the  use  of  every  language  is  a  matter 
of  iiabit  rather  tlian  of  rule;  every  writer  and  speaker  knows,  that  there 
are  myriads  of  instances  in  which  tlie  ear  and  the  memory,  however  trained 
by  habit,  will  not  serve  as  a  guide,  and  that  a  knowledge  of  the  principles 
and  usages  of  language  in  regard  to  nice  points  of  construction,  is  in- 
disi)cnsable.  "  Since  language",  says  Currie,  "  is  the  instrument  of  all 
thought,  a  more  commanding  knowledge  of  it  than  habit  alone  can  give 
must  be  deemed  a  necessity  of  education,  and  particularly  of  all  education 
wliicli  pri'tonds  to  cultivate  the  mind". 

GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS,  so  called,  not  because  they  gave  instruction 
in  English  grammar,  but  from  the  fact  of  their  making  the  teaching  of 
I>atin  and  Greek  —  particularly,  and  sometimes  exclusively,  the  former  — 
their  especial  aim,  existed  in  England  from  the  earliest  times.     They  dis- 


GEEEK  LANGUAGE  151 

charged  the  same  function  as  the'old  'cathedral  schools  or  the  Cloister 
schools  of  the  monasteries,  and  Avere  established  and  supported  either  by 
the  endowments  of  benevolent  individuals,  or  by  governmental  appropria- 
tions. In  England,  the  endowed  grammar  schools  are  very  numerous  and 
many  of  quite  ancient  foundation. 

Grammar  schools,  in  the  United  States,  were  originally  of  the  same 
character  as  in  England  and  Scotland.  The  gradual  development  of  the 
common-school  system  in  the  United  States,  joined  with  the  partial  decKne 
of  Latin  and  Greek  as  instruments  of  education,  and  the  demand  for  studies 
of  a  more  practical  character,  that  is,  more  in  demand  as  a  prejaaration  for 
the  ordinary  duties  of  life,  have  led  to  a  different  appUcation  of  the  term 
grammar  schools.  The  study  of  English  grammar  having  taken  the  place 
of  Latin  grammar  in  schools  of  an  elementary  grade,  such  schools  came  to 
be  designated  grammar  schools,  and  the  former  grammar  or  classical 
schools  received  the  name  of  high  schools  or  academies.  In  most  of  the 
public-school  systems  of  the  cities  of  the  Union,  grammar  schools  are 
schools  of  a  grade  between  the  primary  schools  in  which  the  first  rudiments 
of  instruction  are  imparted,  and  the  liigh  schools.  Some  of  the  grammar 
schools,  so  called,  have  a  primary,  an  intermediate,  and  a  grammar  depart- 
ment. In  these  cases,  the  term  grammar  schools  has  been  used  with  no 
definite  idea  of  its  propriety,  except  as  designating  a  somewhat  higher 
grade  of  schools  than  those  in  which  the  simplest  rudiments  of  an  English 
education  are  afforded;  since  even  in  these  English  grammar  is  taught  in 
only  the  higher  grades  or  classes. 

GREEK  LANGUAGE,  one  of  the  two  classical  languages  which  as 
such  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  course  of  study  in  all  the  higher 
literary  institutions  of  the  civilized  world. 

In  regard  to  the  method  to  be  pursued  in  teaching  Greek,  there  is  a 
greater  agreement  among  leading  educators,  than  in  respect  to  many  other 
„  ,  7  f  st'Udies.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  comparative  difficulty 
teaching.  ?^  ^Jreek  grammar,  even  of  its  first  or  etymological  part,  makes 
it  desirable  that  aU  whose  education  is  to  comprehend  a  knowl- 
edge of  this  language,  should  begin  the  study  at  an  early  age,  when  the 
vigor  of  memory  is  still  fresh,  and  its  function  still  prevails  in  the  course 
of  instruction.  Hamilton's  and  Jacotot's  methods  find  now-a-days  few  fol- 
lowers in  the  teaching  of  Greek;  and  the  study  of  grammar,  with  trans- 
lations from  Greek  into  English  and  English  into  Greek,  chiefly  occupies 
the  attention  of  the  beginner.  It  has  been  proposed,  and  sometimes  at- 
tempted, to  begin  the  teaching  of  the  language,  in  accordance  with  the  devel- 
opment of  Greek  literature,  with  the  study  of  the  epic  and  old  Ionic  dialects; 
but  the  old  practice  to  make  the  Attic  dialect  the  basis  has  victoriously 
maintained  its  traditional  ascendency.  Exercises  in  translating  from  the 
native  language  into  Greek  should  not  be  omitted,  as  is  frequently  done; 
though  it  is  well  understood  that,  on  account  of  the  greater  difficulties 
presented  by  the  Greek,  and  the  shorter  time  allowed  for  the  study  of  it, 
the  same  proficiency  in  writing  Greek  is  hardly  ever  or  anywhere  attained 
as  in  Latin.  The  first  exercises  in  translating  Greek  into  English,  or  any 
other  native  tongue,  are  now  generally  provided  in  the  grammars.  Where 
grammars  are  used  which  exclude  exercises  in  translation,  the  use  of  a 
Greek  reader  is  at  once  begun.     In  general,  the  use  of  a  reader  before  the 


152  GYMNASIUM  —  GYMNASTICS 

taking  up  of  a  particular  author,  is  continued  longer  iu  Greek  than  in 
Latin,  becauiie  of  the  longer  time  required  to  obtain  a  good  knowledge  of 
the  grammatical  rules  in  the  former.  AVhen  the  pupil  is  far  enough  ad- 
vanced to  take  up  the  reading  of  Greek  autliors,  the  teacher,  in 
Course  of  jjjaking  the  selection,  should  not  only  be  careful  to  proceed  from 
"*^"  the  easier  to  the  more  difhcult  writers,  and  to  prefer  the  classic 
authors,  but  also  to  read  enough  of  the  selected  work  to  give  to  the  stu- 
dents an  adequate  idea  of  tbe  spirit  of  Greek  literature.  The  orations, 
pliilosophical  dialogues,  and  dramas  are  particularly  suited  for  advanced 
classes  in  Greek.  Of  course,  instruction  in  Greek  is  not  considered  complete 
without  the  reading  of,  at  least,  one  of  the  Homeric  poems;  and  it  is  for- 
tunate that  the  easy  flow  of  the  language  of  these  poems  fits  them  for  an 
early  stage  of  classic  reading.  Among  the  Greek  historians,  Xenophon  and 
Herodotus  fully  deserve  the  favor  of  teachers  and  students,  Avhich  they  have 
enjoyed  for  centuries.  In  regard  to  Herodotus  it  is,  however,  desirable  to 
wait  until  the  pupils  are  well  grounded  in  the  Attic  dialect.  To  include 
Thucydides  in  a  regular  course  appears  to  many  classical  scholars  objection- 
able, as  the  language  is  too  difficult  for  the  majority  of  college  students, 
and  as  the  gloomy  period  which  he  describes  is  not  calculated  to  increase 
the  students'  interest  in  ancient  Greece.  Of  the  dramatic  poets,  ^''schylus 
and  Aristophanes  are  not  suited  for  schools;  and,  therefore,  only  Sophocles 
and  Euripides  can  be  recommended. 

GYMNASIUM  ((ir.  yvfivdmov,  a  place  for  bodily  exercises,  from 
■}Vfiv6r,  naked),  a  term  applied,  in  ancient  Greece  and  Eome,  to  schools 
for  physical  education,  but  in  modern  Germany  and  some  other  coimtries 
of  continental  Europe,  to  a  class  of  secondary  schools  which  hold  a  middle 
place  between  elementary  schools  and  the  universities.  In  England  and 
the  United  States,  in  which  the  colleges  correspond  to  the  German  gym- 
nasia, the  term  gymnasium  is  limited  to  places  for  physical  exercises. 

GYMNASTICS  [ih.  yv/iraartK/'/,  from  yvjuvdc,  naked),  a  system  of 
bodily  exercises  designed  to  develop  muscular  strength,  and  to  promote 
general  physical  culture  and  health.  In  the  article  on  Calisthenics,  this 
subject  has  already  been  treated  as  far  as  it  comprehends  those  light  phys- 
ical exercises  which  are  especially  adapted  for  females,  although  frequently 
used  in  the  education  of  persons  of  the  other  sex;  and,  in  the  employment 
of  the  severer  gymnastic  training,  there  should  be  a  careful  discrimination 
having  regard  to  the  age  and  physical  constitution  of  the  pupil.  Much 
injury  may  be  done  by  requiring  aU  the  members  of  a  school  or  class  to 
perform  the  same  exercises,  more  e»pecia]ly  such  as  are  of  a  violent  char- 
acter. Indeed,  it  may  be  doubted  whether,  up  to  the  age  of  sixteen,  for 
the  ordinary  purpose  of  physical  development  and  health,  boys  need  any- 
thing more  than  abundant  opportunity  and  time  for  the  out-door  sports 
and  recreations  in  which  their  natural  activity  will  generally  prompt  them 
to  engage.  Beyond  that  age.  gymnastic  exercises,  properly  regulated,  may 
be  made  the  means  of  laying  the  foundation  of  permanent  strength  and 
health.  Military  drill  is  often  introduced  into  schools  and  colleges,  and  is 
found  an  efficient  substitute  for  gjMunastic  exercises,  or  an  excellent  auxil- 
iary to  them.  Educators  uniformly  approve  of  this  kind  of  exercise  in 
boys'  schools,  not  only  as  an  effective  means  of  physical  culture,  but  as  im- 
partmg  habits  of  attention,  order,  subordination,  and  prompt  obedience. 


HABIT  153 

For  scliools  of  most  grades,  and  for  either  sex,  light  gymnastics  lias 
been  found  to  supply  approj)riate  and  efficient  exercise.  See  Cyclopcedia 
of  Educaliun. 

HABIT,  a  tendency  to  repeat  the  same  action,  more  or  less  uncon- 
sciously, or  an  inclination  for  the  pursuits,  occupations,  or  states  to  which 

the  body  or  the  mind  has  become  familiar  by  use.    Habit,  as  an 
of  habit    ^u*^C)matic  tendency,  takes  a  wide  range,  not  only  extending  over 

all  our  mental  and  bodily  acts,  but  including  likewise  our  moods 
of  mind,  our  sources  of  indulgence,  pleasure,  ease,  and  recreation,  and  com- 
prehending also,  either  by  improvement  or  debasement,  our  entire  moral 
and  spiritual  nature.  The  singular  facility  which  is  acquired  by  repeated 
action,  in  accomplishing  what  at  first  was  either  difficult  or  impossible,  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  explained.  The  fact,  however,  is  universally  rec- 
ognized in  the  old  saying,  "Habit  is  second  nature",  as  also  in  the  useful 
educational  maxim,  "Fmctice  makes  perfect".  "It  conditions",  says  Rosen- 
kranz  {Pedar/ogics  as  a  Sy stein),  "formally  all  progress;  for  that  which 
is  not  yet  become  habit,  but  which  we  perform  with  design  and  an  exercise 
of  our  will,  is  not  yet  a  part  of  ourselves."  Physiologists  profess  to  find  a 
re;ison  for  this  power  of  habit,  in  the  sympathetic  nerves;  and  some  psychol- 
ogists trace  mental  habits  to  the  association  of  ideas.  The  extent  to  which 
habit  influences  the  daily  life  of  every  one  —  even  the  youngest  child,  can 
scarcely  be  realized.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  it  enters,  in  some 
shape,  into  every  effort  at  continuous  action,  physical  or  mental,  and  more 
or  less  controls  it.  From  the  dawn  of  intelligence,  when  the  child  first 
takes  cognizance  of  material  things,  all  through  the  period  of  self-education, 
which  precedes  systematic  instruction,  it  is  forming,  of  itself,  habits  of  ob- 
servation, comparison,  and  generalization,  which  are  to  constitute  the  basis 
of  all  subsequent  intellectual  activity.  So  is  it  also  forming  those  habits 
which,  taken  together,  make  up  what  is  called  disposition,  temper,  etc.  It 
is  this  tendency  to  contract  habits  which  gives  such  plasticity  to  the  minds 
and  characters  of  youth,  and  which  really  underlies  the  power  and  office  of 
education;  for  what  we  call  training  is  nothins;  more  than  guiding  and  reg- 
ulatmg  the  formation  of  habit. 

While  it  is  the  period  of  formal  education  at  which  the  child  especially 

needs  to  be  protected  from  the  influence  of  habit,  to  some  extent  and  in 

_.        some  respects,  the  watchful  care  of  the  educator  is  required  even 

'liahits^^  from  the  earliest  infancy  to  prevent  the  formation  of  injurious 

and  almost  ineradicable  habits;  indeed,  there  is  scarcely  a  child 
who,  on  being  sent  to  school  for  the  first  time,  will  not  be  found  to  have 
contracted  habits,  both  physical  and  mental,  which  the  teacher  will  find  it 
necessary  to  strive  to  correct.  One  of  his  most  important  functions  will  be 
to  detect  and  eradicate  bad  habits,  as  a  kind  of  morbid  growth;  for,  like 
weeds,  these  habits  not  only  cumber  the  ground  themselves,  but  render  it 
sterile  for  any  other  productions.  For  example,  what  can  be  done  with 
that  most  troublesome  of  all  cases,  —  a  "spoilecl  child",  until  the  habits  of 
self-indulgence,  self-will,  wayward  caprice,  and  despotic  control  of  others, 
which  characterize  it,  are  eradicated,  or  superseded  by  other  dispositions  ? 
So,  too,  with  habits  of  deceit,  falsehood,  cruelty,  and  many  others  that  are 
apt  to  spring  up  in  even  very  young  minds.   In  regard  to  the  intellect,  the 


154  HABIT 

same  principle  holds  true;  for  that  natiu'al  development  which  precedes 
formal  instruction  may,  indeed,  be  luxuriant,  but  cannot  be  regular.  The 
mind  of  the  most  active  child,  under  circumstances  that  present  the  very- 
best  opportunities  for  development,  if  it  has  been  left  entirely  to  itself,  will 
be  found  to  have  acquired  settled  ways  of  observing,  thinking,  and  speak- 
ing which  it  will  be  necessary  to  correct;  and,  besides,  it  will  generally  have 
become  impulsive,  impatient  of  any  continuous  attention,  and  prone  to 
pass  rapidly  fi'om  one  thing  to  another,  in  obedience  to  a  mere  momentary 
fancy  or  impulse.  It  will,  therefore,  be  generally  found  that  children,  on 
being  first  subjected  to  regular  instruction,  need  to  have  habits  of  attention 
formed,  in  place  of  those  of  inattention,  which  have  been  implanted  by 
their  own  iincouscious  and  unregulated  activity.  (See  Attention.)  There 
are  others,  however,  of  a  less  general  character  which  will  demand  special 
effort.  As  an  instance,  one  of  the  earliest  of  these  objectionable  habits, 
and  perhaps  one  of  the  most  common,  is  the  unconscious  substitution  in  the 
child's  mind  of  the  symbol  for  the  thing  symbolized.  This  will  be  mani- 
fested by  most  children  when  shown,  for  example,  the  picture  of  a  horse, 
and  asked  to  state  what  it  is.  Usually  the  answer  will  be,  "It  is  a  horse", 
from  the  habit  of  confounding  things  with  their  representatives.  Hence, 
the  unresisting  facility  with  which  children  yield  their  minds  to  mere 
memorizing  and  rote-learning,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  confirm  the  bad 
habit  referred  to,  and,  in  its  final  result,  to  extinguish  intelligence  and 
destroy  mental  activity.  While  some  of  the  habits  which  demand  the 
teacher's  attention  at  this  early  stage,  are  common  to  all  children,  in  a 
greater  or  a  less  degree,  there  are  others  of  great  variety,  dependent  upon 
either  peculiar  traits  of  cliaracter  or  peculiar  circumstances  of  early  life. 
The  law  of  the  formation  of  habit  is  repetition  or  exercise.  This  is  recog- 
nized in  many  departments  of  instruction,  as  an  indispensable 
Repetition.  j,^^,j^jjg  ^f  iui parting  facility,  readiness,  and  [jromptitude.  without 
which  certain  accomplishments  could  not  be  made,  or  if  made,  would  be 
comparatively  useless.  For  example,  of  what  value  would  the  multiplica- 
tion table  be  if  its  use  required  a  conscious  effort  of  mind  at  every  appli- 
cation of  any  of  its  details?  The  same  principle  is  illustrated  by  the  i)laying 
upon  a  musical  instrument,  by  the  use  of  language  in  speaking  and  writ- 
ing, and  by  the  varied  bodily  movements  needed  in  daily  life.  Good  habits 
should  be  formed  at  as  early  a  pi^riod  as  jiossible;  because  ex- 
Good  pericnce  shows  that,  when  thoroughly  established  in  childhood 
"  '  '  or  youth,  they  generally  continue,  with  more  or  less  strength, 
through  life.  Ilence  the  iniportance  of  making  those  qualities  and  obsei-v- 
ances  habitual  which  constitute  the  elements  of  practical  success  in  eveiy 
walk  of  life;  such  as  punctuality,  order,  regularity,  and  perseverance;  to 
which  may  be  added  neatness,  courtesy,  attention  to  the  wants  of  others, 
forbearance,  and  self-control.  For  the  .same  reason,  bad  habits 
Correction.  gjjQujj  \yQ  eradicated  before  they  have  reached  that  mature  state, 
after  which  they  scarcely  ever  entirely  disappear.  It  is,  indeed,  rarely  the 
case  that  thoroughly  fixed  habits  are  wholly  removed;  hence,  the  teacher 
should  strive  to  counteract  their  evil  influence,  or  neutralize  their  activity, 
by  implanting  those  of  a  eontrarj'  nature.  In  dealing  with  the  bad  habits 
of  children,  the  teacher  should  api)reciate,  and  make  due  allowance  for,  the 
force  of  habit.     He  cannot  uproot  them  at  once  and  by  violence.   As  time 


HALF-TIME  SCHOOLS  —  HARMONY'  155 

is  an  important  element  in  tlieir  formation,  so  is  it  also  in  their  eradication; 
and,  therefore,  the  child  is  to  be  led  along  a  divergent  path  which,  by 
degrees,  will  conduct  him  away  from  the  vicious  impulse  which,  all  the 
while  >  tends  to  overpower  his  best  resolutions.  Whatever  force  or  coercion 
may  be  found  necessary  for  this  purpose  should  be  gradually  relaxed,  tUl 
the  child  has  formed,  to  some  extent,  the  habit  of  self-control; 
otol  "^^i^l^  "^^^^  become  the  foundation  of  most  other  good  habits. 
The  implanting  of  particular  habits  must  not,  however,  be 
deemed  the  whole  of  moral  training;  there  must  be  the  culture  of  consci- 
entiousness, of  intelligence,  of  self-respect,  of  a  constant  impression  and  rec- 
ognition of  the  Divine  presence,  and  of  all  the  other  principles  of  human 
nature,  by  means  of  which  it  rises  to  the  higher  plane  of  moral  responsi- 
bility, consciously  exercising  its  own  faculties,  not  blindly  obeying  habitual 
tendencies  received  from  others.  Properly  educated,  the  human  being,  in 
the  exercise  of  his  own  will  and  conscience,  enlists  the  power  of  habit  in 
support  of  his  own  moral  conclusions,  making  a  useful  servant  of  that  by 
which  so  many  othere  are  hopelessly  enslaved.  In  this  connection,  Rosen- 
kranz  says,  "Education  must  procure  for  the  pupil  the  power  of  being  able 
to  free  himself  from  one  habit  and  to  adopt  another.  Tlu-ough  his  free- 
dom, he  must  be  able  not  only  to  renounce  any  habit  formed,  but  to  form 
a  new  one;  and  he  must  so  govern  his  system  of  habits  that  it  shall  exhibit 
a  constant  progress  of  development  into  greater  freedom.  We  must  disci- 
pline ourselves,  as  a  means  toward  the  everchanging  realization  of  the  good 
in  us,  constantly  to  form  and  to  break  habits."  And  it  is  in  the  attainment 
of  this  grand  object  of  self -culture,  that  habit  may  render  the  important 
aid  referred  to,  in  making  the  exercise  of  self-criticism,  conscientious 
watchfulness  of  our  own  conduct,  and  obedience  to  the  dictates  of  reason 
and  religion,  easy  and  continuous  by  becoming  habitual.  Thus  it  is  that 
the  man  for  whom  education  has  done  all  that  it  can  do,  within  the  utmost 
scope  of  its  power,  truly  finds  habit  not  his  master  but  his  most  useful 
servant  and  friend. 

HALF-TIME  SCHOOLS,  a  class  of  schools  which,  as  the  name 
denotes,  hold  their  sessions  during  only  one  half  of  each  day,  thus  affording 
an  opportunity  to  a  numerous  class  of  children,  employed  in  workshops, 
factories,  stores,  etc.,  to  attend  school  without  giving  up  their  employments. 
They  are  thus  kindred  in  object  with  evening  schools,  which  in  a  certain 
sense,  may  be  considered  as  half-time  schools. 

HARMONY  in  Development,   as  regards   both  the  mental  and 

bodily  faculties,  is  now  viewed  by  educationists  as  the  most  important  aim 

of  education.     "  One  part  of  instruction",  says  Dittes  {ScJiule 

AU  the     der  PddagogiJc,  1816), ''must  not  contradict  another;  nothing 

be'^-afned.  should  be  neglected,  nothing  exaggerated ;  all  the  faculties  of 

'  the  pupU  should  be  cultivated  as  much  as  possible,  and  all  the 

different  objects  and  departments  of  education  should  receive  attention, 

without  interruption,  and  in  due  proportion.     The  intellect  should  not  be 

favored  at  the  expense  of  the  moral  and  physical  nature;  and  hygienic 

considerations  should  not  be  left  out  of  view.     The  teacher  shoiUd  be 

especially  careful  not  to  accord  too  much  time  and  attention  to  favorite 

branches  of  study."     The  latter  is  a  very  important  admonition.     Every 

course  of  study  should  be  arranged  with  a  view  to  the  average  condition  of 


156  HARMONY 

the  growing  mind  and  its  needs;  and,  therefore7  should  comprise  such  a 
variety  of  subjects  as  will  call  into  exercise  the  different  mental  powers, 
and  thus  become   instruments  in  their  culture  and  development.     The 

scientific  teacher  will,  however,  watch  for  decided  peculiarities 
avtUudes    ^^  character,  —  special  aptitudes,  traits  of  genius,  etc.,  and  will 

modify  his  course  of  proceeding  so  as,  while  giving  scope  for  the 
unfolding  of  these  particular  powers,  or  talents,  not  to  permit  them  to 
repress  the  growth  of  other  indispensable  faculties.  Thus,  a  pupil  may 
show  a  special  inclination  and  talent  for  drawing,  which  may  very 
properly  be  allowed  its  fuU  development;  but,  in  doiug  this,  the  educator 
is  not  to  permit  all  other  mental  or  manual  occupations  to  be  neglected. 
Indeed,  this  special  gift  may  be  kept  in  abeyance,  and  stimulus  applied,  for 
a  time  at  least,  to  penmanship,  and  to  the  study  of  language,  science,  or 
other  important  subjects.  Some  pupils,  as  a  further  example,  may  be  too 
prone  to  the  exercise  of  the  imagination;  in  which  case,  they  should  be 
required  to  study  science  or  mathematics.  Others  may  show  an  almost 
exclusive  bent  for  calculation  or  mathematical  reasoning,  wliich  must,  of 
course,  be  corrected  by  the  pursuit  of  studies  calling  into  exercise  other 
powers  of  the  mind;  such  as  history,  general  literatm'e,  mental  philosophy, 
etc.  Knowledge  is  sometimes  called  the  food  of  the  mind,  by  the  assimila- 
tion of  which  its  various  powers  are  nourished;  hence,  to  continue  the 
metaphor,  there  should  be  a  due  variety  of  this  food,  and  the  different 
kinds  should  be  selected  with  a  view  to  the  particular  condition  and  needs 
of  the  system  which  is  to  be  supplied  with  nutriment.  As  in  physical 
education,  if  a  pupil  manifests  any  signs  of  abnonnal  development  or 
morbid  growth,  such,  for  example,  as  distortion  of  the  limbs  or  curvature 
of  the  spine,  continuous  exercises  and  postures  are  prescribed  to  correct 
this  tendency;  so,  in  every  department  of  education,  a  harmonious 
development  can  only  result  from  a  discriminative  application  of  those 
agencies  which  call  into  active  and  habitual  exercise  the  powers  of 
mind  and  body.  Such  a  development  implies,  too,  a  full  recognition 
of  all  the  relations  and  powei-s  of  the  human  being,  embracing  not  only 
the  cultivation  of  those  capacities  which  concern  him  as  an  individual,  but 
also  those  on  which  his  happiness  and  usefulness  as  a  social  and  moral 
being  depend.  How  miserable  is  the  mere  student,  the  solitary  genius, 
cut  off  from  the  exercise  of  the  social  sympathies  and  deprived  of  social 
enjoyments  by  a  one-sided  development !  The  educator  must  recognize 
that  there  is  a  body,  a  mind,  and  a  soul  to  be  addressed  and  cultivated; 
and  that  man  has  social,  moral,  and  religious  faculties,  without  the 
harmonious  development  of  which  he  cannot  properly  fulfil  his  destiny, 
nor  attain  happiness.  The  special  claims  of  particular  vocations,  it  is  said, 
^  .  demand  one-sided  culture.  Of  this  there  is  no  doubt;  but 
vocSians.  Preceding  it,  and  hence  underlying  it,  there  should  be  such 
general  culture  as  the  circumstances  of  man,  as  man,  require. 
Profession  or  business  comprehends,  in  general,  but  one  relation;  and  un- 
fortunate, therefore,  is  he  wlio  can  meet  the  demands  of  only  that  relation, 
unable  to  perform  aright  the  domestic,  social,  political,  and  religious  duties 
which  are  inseparably  connected  with  the  position  of  every  person  in  this 
life.  In  order  to  perform  these  duties,  every  person  is  endowed  with 
special  faculties,  which,  by  the  want  of  proper  cultivation  in  early  life,  or 


HAZING  —  HIGH  SCHOOLS  157 

by  disuse,  may  be  so  enfeebled  as  to  be  unfit  for  exercise;  and  the 
harmonious  development  of  these  is  the  only  true  aim  of  education.  If  aU 
these  faculties  do  not,  at  an  early  age,  receive  their  due  share  of  training, 
self-education,  at  a  later  period,  cannot,  but  within  very  narrow  limits, 
supply  the  deficiency.  The  individual  will  always  find  himself  more  or 
less  crippled,  because  no  self-culture  can  entirely  supply  the  place  of  early 
habits.  To  the  doctrine  of  harmonious  development,  it  has 
dowinenfs  ^^^^  objected  that  special  innate  endowments  cannot  be  re- 
pressed by  education;  and  to  address  other  faculties  will  only 
result  in  bestowing  superficial  accomplishments  of  no  practical  value. 
Thus  a  youth  of  decided  mathematical  genius  could  never  become  more 
than  an  imperfect  linguist;  and  one  with  special  talent  for  language  would 
be  likely  to  make  but  indifferent  attainments  in  science.  Harmonious 
development,  however,  does  not  require  the  repression  of  special  endowments, 
but  the  cultivation  of  what  may  be  called  the  general  powers,  in  such  a 
way  as  to  give  support  to  each  particular  endowment.  A  wise  educational 
training,  commenced  at  the  earliest  childhood,  and  continued  through  each 
successive  period  of  the  formative  state  of  human  character,  will  not  only 
fit  for  any  particular  vocation  for  which  there  may  be  a  special  bent,  but 
win  also  prepare  the  individual  for  general  usefulness,  and  render  him  able 
to  enjoy  the  wonders  of  science,  and  the  beauties  of  nature  and  art,  as  well 
as  to  participate  in  all  other  pleasures  incident  to  his  existence  as  a  social 
and  rational  being. 

HAZING,  a  term  applied  to  the  mischievous  and  often  abusive  and 
injurious  tricks  which  are  played  by  older  college  students  upon  freshmen. 
The  term,  as  well  as  the  practice,  is  of  considerable  age;  but,  during  the 
last  few  years,  much  effort  has  been  put  forth  by  those  who  have  the  charge 
of  higher  institutions  of  learning  to  suppress  the  custom  as  demoralizing 
and  barbarous. 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE,  the  language  in  which  the  Sacred  Script- 
ures of  the  Old  Testament  were  written,  is  on  that  account  of  special  im- 
portance both  for  the  Hebrew  people  and  for  Christians,  more  especially 
theologians,  who  desire  to  read  the  Scriptures  in  the  original. 

As  the  study  of  Hebrew,  among  Christians,  generally  is  not  begun 
until  the  students  have  obtained  a  good  knowledge,  not  only  of  their  native 
tongue,  but  also  of  Latin  and  Greek,  the  teacher  will  find  it  expedient  to 
pursue  a  method  very  different  from  that  observed  in  teaching  young 
pupils  the  elements  of  Latin  and  Greek.  The  mastering  of  the  chief  rules 
of  grammar  may  be  expected  to  consume  comparatively  little  time.  As 
the  chief  purpose  of  nearly  all  students  of  Hebrew  is  to  be  enabled  to  read 
the  Bible,  it  is  natural  that  teachers  should  generally  conform  their  method 
to  that  special  aim.  The  study  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  is.  therefore,  begun 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  most  of  the  grammatical  peculiarities  are  explained 
in  connection  with  reading.  For  a  fidl  treatment  of  this  subject,  see 
Cydopcedia  of  Education. 

HIGH  SCHOOLS,  generally  schools  of  secondary  or  academic  in- 
struction, corresponding,  to  the  lower  grades  of  the  German  gymnasia,  but 
sometimes  partaking  rather  of  the  character  of  real  schools.  Public  high 
schools  exist  in  most  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  forming  a  part  of  the 
public-school  system,  being  the  connecting  link  between  the  elementary 


158  HISTORY 

district,  common,  or  grammar  schools,  and  the  state  university,  for  which 
they  perform  the  office  of  preparatory  schools.  Some  of  these  schools  aro 
so  organized  as  to  comprise  academic,  normal,  and  commercial  departments. 
In  small  cities  and  towns,  high-school  classes  or  departments,  taught  in  the 
same  building  with  the  grammar  schools,  take  the  place  of  separate  high 
schools.  There  is  a  great  want  of  uniformity  in  the  grade  and  character 
of  these  schools  in  different  states  and  in  different  cities  of  the  same  state. 
Some  are  simply  of  a  higher  grade  than  the  grammar  schools;  that  is,  they 
give  instruction  in  more  advanced  studies;  while  others  strictly  form  a 
part  of  a  graded  system  which  includes  a  complete  representation  of 
primary,  secondary,  and  superior  instruction. 

HISTORY,  as  a  branch  of  instruction,  presents  very  many  important 
points  of  inquiry  for  the  educator.     'J'he  vast  field  which  it  occupies  as  a 

realm  of  facts,  the  great  difficulty  in  classifying  these  facts,  and 

Edu-       deducing  from   them   any  general  principles  or  laws,  or  even  in 

T''^"?^-    associating  them  so  that  they  may  be  presented  to  the  mind  of 

the  learner  in  groups  bound  together  by  some  common  relation, 
—  these  characteristics  of  history  make  it  perhaps  the  most  difficult  which 
the  educator  has  to  deal  with.  This  will  account  for  the  diversity  of  opin- 
ion as  to  the  proper  method  of  teaching  it,  as  well  as  for  the  many  obvious 
errors  of  method  that  exist.  Some,  indeed,  have  condemned  it  as  a  school 
study;  on  the  ground  that  the  mere  facts  of  history,  without  the  general 
laws  which  they  teach,  are  of  no  account,  while  the  study  of  the  philosophy 
of  history  is  too  deep  for  immature  minds.  On  this  account.  Prof.  Bain 
contends  that  it  is  a  subject  proper  only  for  the  university.  John  Locke 
said,  "  As  nothing  teaches,  so  nothing  delights,  more  than  history.  The 
first  of  these  recommends  it  to  the  study  of  the  grown  man;  the  latter 
makes  me  think  it  fittest  for  a  young  lad".  These  extreme  opinions  ari.se 
from  viewing  the  subject  from  different  stand-points.  'J'here  is  no  doubt 
that  the  study  of  history,  like  that  of  geography,  botany,  astronomy,  and 

other  school  subjects  may  be  presented  to  the  mind  of  the  child 
Mode  of  in  such  a  manner  as  not  only  to  be  useless  and  distasteful,  but 
hfsluin/    actually  injurious.     As  in  every  other  subject,  the  educator  is 

to  consider  the  nature  of  the  mind  to  be  addressed,  and  the 
character  of  the  study  itself.  I'rimarily,  history  is  a  narrative;  and  there 
is  notliing  which  pleases  children  so  much  as  narratives  concerning  things 
in  which  they  take  an  interest,  or  with  which  they  are  familiar.  If  children, 
therefore,  are  to  study  history,  they  mu.st  first  be  interested  in  the  persons 
and  things  that  it  refers  to.  Thus  American  children  will  be  eager  to 
learn  about  the  discovery  of  America  by  f 'olumbus,  because  it  concerns 
the  country  in  which  they  live;  and  they  will  be  scarcely  satisfied  with 
any  amount  of  detail  in  regard  to  the  particular  facts  connected  with  that 
event.  Columbus  as  a  great  personage  will  then  loom  up  in  their 
imagination,  and  their  curiosity  will  be  exerted  to  know  something 
about  him.  This  will  interest  them  in  Isabella,  the  good  queen  of  Spain; 
and  something  may  be  .'^aid  of  her,  and  of  the  country  to  which  she  be- 
longed. In  this  desultory  way,  and  without  any  special  effort  to  show  the 
relations  of  events  as  to  time  or  cause  and  effect,  the  conceptive  faculty  of 
quite  young  children  may  be  addre.'ised  in  teaching  history,  and  thus  their, 
minds  will  be  prepared  for  its  regular  study,  by  receiving  those  underlying 


HISTORY  159 

conceptions  which  are  constantly  needed  to  make  formal  historical  narra- 
tives interesting  or  even  understood.  "The  fact",  says  Emerson,  "must 
correspond  to  something  in  me  to  be  credible  or  intelligible".  It  is  in  ref- 
erence to  this  principle  that  Wickersham  remarks,  "It  concerns  us  Uttle 
to  know  the  lineage  of  kings  and  queens,  the  intrigues  of  courts,  or  the 
plans  of  campaigns;  but  it  would  interest  us  much  to  be  told  how  people 
in  past  times  built  their  houses,  worked  their  fields,  or  educated  their 
children  —  what  style  of  dress  they  wore,  what  kind  of  food  they  eat,  what 
books  they  read".  The  latter  classes  of  facts  are  not,  however,  more  in- 
teresting in  themselves,  but  because  they  are  more  nearly  related  to  our 
individual  experience.  Different  persons  will  not  be  interested  in  the  same 
class  of  historical  facts.  The  soldier  will  attend  to  the  military  history  of 
a  country;  the  statesman  and  pohtician,  to  the  political;  the  agriculturist, 
to  the  methods  of  husbandry  in  use;  and  to  a  numerous  class  of  minds  the 
dynastic  history  —  the  "lineage  of  kings  and  queens",  will  possess  supreme 
fascination.  All  departments  of  history  are  useful  in  their  special  appli- 
cations; and  are  of  interest  to  those  who  desire  to  know  the  facts  which 

they  severally  comprehend.  In  arranging  history  for  educational 

^9^s  of  purposes,  we  must  consider  the  degree  of  development  of  the 

^study      pupil's  mind;  and  in  this  respect  historical  study  may  be  divided 

into  three  stages:  (1)  The  introductory,  in  which  the  mind  of 
the  young  child  has  to  be  prepared  for  the  study,  as  above  indicated; 
(2)  'I'he  intermediate,  at  which  the  formal  study  of  history  commences, 
dealing  principally  with  facts  and  their  obvious  relations;  and  (3)  The  ad- 
vanced, in  which  the  higher  forms  of  generalization  are  presented,  consti- 

tuting  what  has  been  styled  the  philosophy  of  history.     In  the 
staae      ^'^^^  stage,  what  has  been  called  the  "fragments  of  history",  that 

is,  brief  and  interesting  narratives,  biographical  sketches,  etc., 
clothed  in  a  simple  picturesque  style,  should  constitute  the  subject  matter 
of  the  instruction.  This  may  be  presented  in  a  desultory  manner,  without 
any  special  regard  to  logical  or  chronological  order,  the  great  object  being 
to  interest  the  learner  by  filling  his  mind  with  vivid  conceptions  of  certain 
events  and  personages.  Of  course,  this  preliminary  instruction  may  take  a 
wide  range,  embracing  the  most  prominent  persons  and  events  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  and  thus  constituting  a  valuable  outline,  on  which  to 
base  the  subsequent  study.  But  this  ia  not  so  important  as  that,  in  every 
thing  that  is  taught,  the  young  pupil's  experience  and  imagination  should 
be  addressed;  that  is,  the  facts  presented  to  be  learned  should  be  concrete 
facts,  not  mere  abstractions.  Epitomes  of  history  are  valueless  for  this 
purpose,  because  they  attempt  to  cover  the  whole  ground.  As  has  been 
well  said  by  a  celebrated  educationist,  the  use  of  an  epitome  is  like  giving 
a  child  an  "index  to  learn  by  heart". 

In  the  second  stage,  while  the  same  principle  should  be  steadily  kept  in 

view,  the  study  should  become  more  formal  and  systematic.  It  is  here  that 

jj  the  most  important  questions  arise  for  consideration.     The  first 

'  staqe.      ^^  these  concerns  the  choice  between  a  compendium  of  history 

and  a  series  of  historical  text-books  on  different  nations.  The 
system  of  special  national  text-books  grew  up  at  a  time  when,  from  na- 
tional patriotism,  each  country  considered  its  own  history  as  foremost  and 
hence,  all  others  as  of  secondary  importance;  and  it  has  been  fostered,  in 


160  HISTORY 

the   advance  of  historic  learning,  by  a  system  of  abridgments  of  large 
standard  works,  or  by  school  books  based,  in  method  of  treatment,  upon 
them.   But  such  treatment  is  not  adapted  to  conditions  for  which  the  orig- 
inals were  not  intended.     Each  of  these  special  works  presupposes  the 
existence  of  all  the  others,  and  thus  virtually  depends  on  them  for  its 
general   stand-point,  and  for  that  knowledge  Avhich   is  indispen.sable   to 
render  the   narrative  intelligible;   and,   hence,  for  school   purposes,  the 
abridgments  are  of  little  use,  because  this  general  knowledge  cannot  be 
supposed  to  exist.     Besides  that,  the  large  standard  works  are  too  exclu- 
sively philosophical  in  their  character  and  arrangement  to  admit  of  an 
abridgment  for  school  purposes.     Narrowing  the  field  of  view  for  the  pur- 
pose of  scientific  investigation,  such  works  naturally  adopt  largely  the  con- 
secutive narrative  form;    but  consecutive  narrative  is  not  essential  when 
only  general  leading  facts  are  to  be  presented,  and  narrative  detail  is  un- 
suited  to  the  treatment  required  for  school  instruction.      There  can   be 
no  perspective  in  such  a  mode  of  treatment.     Leading  facts  rank  side  by 
side  with  subordinate  ones,  and  the  history   assumes  the  form   of  dry 
annals.     Excessive   detail   in   historical   text-books   is   always  a  fruitful 
source  of  vexation  to  both  teacher  and  pupil.     AA'hat  is  needed,  for  this 
stage  of  instruction,  is  a  skillful  grouping  of  facts,  which,  while  it  departs 
but  little   from    the   chronological   order,   shows  the  proper  relation  of 
events  —  how   one    brought  about  the   other.     In  the   history   of   the 
world,  as  of  each   separate   country,  and   of   every  great  event,  as,  for 
example,  the    Iteformatiou,   the   'J'hirty  Years'  A\'ar,    the  Ecvolution   in 
England,   the  j^merican  Eevolution,   the   French  Revolution,  the    great 
Civil  War  in    the  United  i^tates,  there   are  certain   consjiicuous  stand- 
points,  or  centers   of  interest,  around    which    other  events    should   be 
grouped,  as  dependent  upon  them.     The  same  principle  is  op])Oscd,  in  the 
teaching   of   general    history,   to   confining   the   attention   of    the   pupil 
exclusively  to   each  nation   in  succession,  throughout  its  entire  history 
(ethnographic    method).     It   is   a  well-defined   feature  of  every  historic 
movement  that,  in  many  of  its  epochs,  it  is  carried  along  by  some  particular 
nation  as  the  representative,  for  the  time  being,  of  some  controll- 
Ethuograph-  \■^■^„  jj^^^  or  principle,  other  nations  playing  a  subordinate  part. 
arouniu       '^  '"*^  should  be   clearly  brought  out  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
methods,     subject  (grovpiufj  mc/hod).    It  is  not  always  possible,  however, 
to  distinguish  a  single  nation  as  holding  such  an  undisputed 
prominence;  but,  where  this  question  is  in  doubt,  there  is  always  a  move- 
ment, more  or  less  general,  to  which  the  contemporaneous  nations  are  sub- 
ect,  and  to  which,  therefore,  the   history  of  the  separate  nations  should 
ave  a  di.stinct  reference.     In  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  for  example, 
it  is  desirable  to  present  the  nations  collectively  in  their  relation  to  it,  the 
event.s  which  concern  their  .separate  existence  being  kept  in  tlu' background. 
A  system   of  instruction  which   presents,  in  succession  and  at  widely  sep- 
arated  intervals,  the  share  of  each  jwrticular  nation  in  such  a  great  move- 
ment as  the  Reformation,  cannot   possibly  impress  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
properly  in   regard  to  it.     In  the  compilation  of  a  compendium  of  history 
suitable  for  school  u.se.a  compromise  is  requisite  between  the  plan  of  teach- 
ing the  history  of  each  nation  by  itself  (ethiwf/raphic  method)  and  that  of 
teaching  by  periods  or  epochs,  the  history  of  each  nation  coming  iu  where 


i' 


HISTORY  16i 

it  belongs  in  the  period  {synchronistia  method).    The  latter  method,  by- 
short  periods,  centuries  for  instance,  is  useless  for  beginners,  as  it  gives 
only  a  confused  picture  of  the  whole.    In  ancient  history,  it  has 
Synchro-  b^t  a  limited    application;   because  the  nations  of  antiquity 
^^h'^d     '^'^^'^  essentially  separate,  coming  on  the  stage  at  successive  pe- 
riods, and  rarely  blended,  to  any  extent,  in  any  general  move- 
ment.    The  ethnographic  method  is,  therefore,  the  best  for  this  depart- 
ment of  history,  but  may  be  departed  from  in  certain  portions  of  it,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  history  of  the  states  of  Greece.     For  beginners,  the  eth- 
nographic method  seems  to  be  best,  at  least  until  a  good  general  outline  has 
been  fixed  in  the  mind,  after  which  the  grouping  method  ought  to  be 
steadily  pursued,  but  stiU  with  a  constant  regard  to  the  mental  advance- 
ment and  maturity  of  the  student.    The  chronological  method 
e^/fd  ^''™^^*'  tiowever,  lead  in  every  scheme  of  elementary  historical 
teaching.    The  pupil  must,  above  all  things,  attend  to  the  order 
of  time;  or  his  subsequent  reading  and  study  will  be  greatly  embarrassed. 
This  method  has  been  used  in  Germany  from  time  immemorial,  with  modifi- 
cations such  as  have  been  referred  to,  for  adaption  to  the  purposes  of  element- 
ary, burgher  and  real  schools,  and  gymnasia.     These  modifications  consist 
chiefly  in  the  relative  prominence  given  to  the  synchronistic  and  ethno- 
grapliic  principles.     Many  of  the  school  text-books  on  history,  published  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  are  based  on  the  same  system;  but 
teachers  have  generally  favored  the  ethnographic  system,  as  less  fragmentary 
and  disjointed.     For  a  field  so  vast  as  that  of  general  history,  it  is  of  the 
highest  importance  that  the  idea  of  both  unity  and  sequence  should  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  pupil's  mind.     In  the  chronologic  method,  the  perspective 
view  which  this  unification  of  the  broader  parts  demands,  is  not  dependent 
on  the  special  notions  of  any  teacher  or  compiler,  but  grows  up  in  the 
mind  from  the  study  of  the  facts  themselves.   In  the  treatment  of  antiquity, 
the  history  of  the  eastern  nations  precedes  that  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Greeks  the  Romans;  and  while  teaching  each  in  chronologic  order,  the 
other  contemporaneous  nations  should  be  brought  in,  as  episodes,  at  such 
periods  and  in  such  connections,  as  will  best  illustrate  the  history  of  the 
great  nation  which,  for  the  time  being,  is  controlling  the  affairs  of  the 
world.     Egypt,    Assyria,   Babylon,   Persia,  Greece,  Rome  (republic  and 
empire),  may,  in  succession,  be  made  the  leading  nation;  and  all  the  others 
will  come  in  at  certain  periods.     In  the  middle  ages,  the  treatment  should 
be  analogous;  there  is  at  every  period,  a  great  tribe  or  nation,  whether  the 
Franks,  the  Saracens,  the  Normans,  or  the  Germans,  the  history  of  whom, 
treated  in  its  chronologic  order,  will  absorb  the  remainder,  except  what 
may  come  in  episodically.     In  modern  history,  the  ethnographic  principle 
must   at  first  have  prominence,  before  the   pupil   can  study  the  great 
European  movements,  such  as  the  Reformation  and  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  with  any  real  satisfaction  or  benefit.    Chiefly  as  episodes,  in  mediaeval 
and  modern  history,  come  in  certain  great  topics;  such  as  the  Saracenic 
civilization,  the  Byzantine  culture,  the  Turkish  ascendency,  the  maritime 
''discoveries  of  Portugal  and  Spain, the  Italian  Renaissance,  the  struggle  of 
gy^.      the  Dutch  Republic,  the  rise  of  Sweden  and  Russia,  etc.    AVhat- 
chronistic  ever  method    may  be  used,   si/nchronistic   exercises   will    be 
exercises,  constantly  requisite  to  a  full  understanding  of  the  relations  of 


1G2  HISTORY 

events.  These  may  take  the  form  of  lists  of  sovereigns  grouped  into 
centuries  and  arranged,  side  by  side,  in  perpendicular  columns;  or  lead- 
ing events  arranged  in  the  same  way.  After  the  history  of  any  nation 
or  period  has  been  studied  in  the  chronological  order,  various  methods  of  ar- 
rangement may  be  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  review,  varying  the  sequence 
which  has  been  followed  in  the  regular  lessons.  Thus,  the  pupil  may  be 
required  to  state  all  the  events  connected  with  a  particular  place,  or  a 
particular  individual,  which  he  has  previously  learned  in  a  strictly  chrono- 
logical order,  or  in  connection  with  the  national  history.  The  tojncal 
.  method  of  recitation  will  be  found  the  most  effective,  not  only 
AMhod.    ^^^  *^®  attainment  of  the  best  results  as  far  as  history  itseK  is 

concerned,  but  for  collateral  culture,  particularly  of  expression. 
On  account  of  the  latter,  accuracy  in  language  should,  as  nuich  as  possible 
be  insisted  upon;  and  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  use  their  own 
language,  instead  of  memorizing  tliat  of  the  text-book.  Brief  written 
sketches  of  events,  personages,  periods,  etc.,  will  be  of  great  use  in  making 
this  collateral  culture  effective,  and  will  also  afford  much  useful  practice  in 

other  respects.  —  A  severe  and  sustained  drill  on  a  single  manual 
'manual.    '^  °^  great  use  for  the  strong  landmarks  it  leaves  in  the  pupil's 

mind;  but,  to  be  thoroughly  effective  as  an  educational  process, 
it  ought  to  be  accompanied  with  the  reading,  to  some  extent,  of  auxiliary 
books  giving  interesting  detail  in  regard  to  prominent  points.  Such  a 
system  of  independent  reading  by  the  different  members  of  a  class,  properly 
utilized,  will  lead  to  the  acquisition  of  much  interesting  information,  each 
pupil  bringing  his  own  contribution,  to  be  offered  in  connection  with  the 
class  exercises.  Children,  at  an  early  age,  with  a  taste  for  reading,  will 
devour  solid  books  of  history,  when  not  under  compulsion;  especially  if 
they  have  a  strong  frame-work  fixed  in  their  minds  for  the  separate  facts 
to  attach  themselves  to;  and  such  reading  will  constitute  a  very  important 
part  of  mental  culture.  —  Dates  are  to  some  extent  needed,  but  only  in 
connection  with  the  general  narrative.     To  memorize  the  dates  of  isolated 

events  is  Avor.se  than  useless.  The  dates  of  certain  great  events, 
^  ^^'  marking  epochs,  should  be  carefully  fixed  in  the  mind.  As  al- 
ready said,  the  method  pursued  should  be  such  as  to  keep  the  stream  of 
time  constantly  in  view;  and  this  will  render  the  memorizing  of  many 
dates  unnecessary.  Chronological  relations  may  be  better  taught  by  means 
of  historical  charts,  representing  the  exact  position  in  time  of  every  nation 
and  event,  just  as  a  map  represents  countries,  cities,  etc.,  in  space.  These 
should  be  large  enough  to  show  clearly  to  the  eye  what  is  represented;  and 

the  different  nations  should  be  marked  out  in  strong  colors.  Maps, 
'^^^'^^"^' showing  the  states  and  countries,  and  their  extent  at  different 
periods,  are  indispensable.  'I'hese  maps  illustrate  the  relation  of  geography 
and  history,  and  afford  an  indication  of  the  extent  to  w  hich  geographical 
study  is  needed  in  connection  with  that  of  history.  It  is,  however,  desir- 
able that  all  the  places  mentioned  in  history  should  be  at  least  pointed 
out  on  the  map. 

Good  historical  lectures  are  eminently  beneficial,  in  connection  with 
regular  lessons,  or  rc-inforced  by  suitable  class  exercises.     The  taking  of 

notes  by  the  pupils  is  of  little  value;  because  such  notes  can 
Lectures,  concern  only  definite  and  disconnected  facts  which  should  be 


HISTORY  1C3 

impressed  upon  the  mind  by  the  study  of  a  compendium  or  "by  class  drill; 
while  the  lecture  is  designed  to  give  broad,  general  views  of  events,  in 
their  relations,  and  in  their  bearing  on  some  great  historical  movement. 
The  takino-  of  notes  by  young  pupils  must  necessarily  interrupt  the  current 
of  their  thought,  and  thus  mar  the  effect  of  the  lecture.  It  is,  however,  in 
the  third  or  advanced  stage  of  historical  study  that  lectures  have  their 
special  place. 

The   class  of  fads  —  the  kind  of  material  —  to  be  selected  for  the 
elementary  study  of  history  is  another  important  consideration  for  the 

teacher,  as  well  as  for  the  compiler  of  a  school  compendium. 
Class  There  is  a  great  diversity  in  this  respect.  In  some  text-books, 
ojjacs.  •^^Q^J^Q  pj.QQjJQgQgg  ig  given  to  the  political  and  military  history, 
every  thing  pertaining  to  social  life  being  left  out.  This  deprives  the  study 
of  much  of  its  strongest  and  best  interest.  The  condition  and  progress  of 
the  people  in  the  elements  of  civilization,  —  the  industrial  and  fine  arts, 
literature,  education,  social  culture,  manners,  customs,  etc.,  should  be 
graphically  sketched,  in  connection  with  the  political  history,  which  must, 

of  course,  constitute  the  frame-work  of  the  whole.  'Jlie  office 
addressed  ^^  history  as  a  school  study,  is  not  only  to  give  information^  in 
■  regard  to  the  events  of  the  past,  but  is  to  discipline  the  mind 
by  cultivating  and  improving  (1)  the  memory,  (2)  the  imagination,  (3)  the 
judgment,  (4)  the  power  of  expression,  and  (5)  the  moral  and  emotional 
nature.  The  pupil,  when  properly  instructed,  has  his  sympathies  aroused: 
he  applauds  the  noble,  the  patriotic,  and  the  virtuous;  he  condemns  the 
mean,  the  selfish,  and  the  wicked.  Every  lesson  teaches  him  by  example, 
for  it  confronts  him  with  either  human  virtue  or  human  wickedness.  The 
false  tinsel  of  glory  must  not  be  permitted  to  conceal  the  selfishness,  cruelty, 
and  wrong  of  the  ambitious  tyrant  or  conqueror;  and  the  nobleness  of  the 
martyr  wUl  not  be  debased  because  he  pines  in  a  dungeon  or  dies  on  the 
scaffold.  Treated  in  the  right  spirit,  history  thus  becomes  a  great  moral 
teacher  for  pupils  of  every  class  and  grade. 

In  the  third  stage,  that  of  superior  instruction,  history  has  strong  claims 
to  attention.  Whatever  the  sphere  of  life  in  which  the  student  is  to  engage, 

he  should  possess  himself  of  the  key  to  the  records  of  the  past 
g/^g      history  of  mankind.    History  may  pecuUarly  be  called  a  "living 

study",  since  it  draws  its  interest  at  once  from  the  slow  but 
certain  movement  of  human  forces,  among  which  self-interest,  will,  and 
passion  play  a  great  part.  The  field  is  so  vast,  that  the  untrained  student 
will  be  lost  in  the  maze,  and  will  wander  about  aimless  and  bewildered. 
It  is  the  office  of  education  to  show  that  the  elements  are  really  simple, 
and  to  impart  a  system  to  the  vast  crowd  of  facts,  by  which  they  may 
become  useful,  by  being  co-ordinated.  It  is  here,  then,  that  history  assumes 
whatever  scientific  phase  it  may  be  capable  of.     What  has  been  called  the 

X>liilosophy  of  history  is,  in  an  especial  manner  and  degree, 
-^r^^^^W  suitable  for  college  study,  as  it  brings  into  play  the  higher 

faculties  of  the  mind, — generalization,  reason,  and  judgment. 
At  this  stage,  we  do  not  rest  satisfied  with  a  simple  narrative  of  events, 
but  we  attempt  to  trace  them  to  their  real  causes,  and  deduce  from  them 
those  general  laws  on  which  political  and  social  science  must  be  based. 
This  gives  rise  to  various  theories;  as  the  materialistic  theory,  which  sup- 


1G4  HOME  EDUCATION 

poses  the  co-ordinate  factor  in  bringing  about  the  changes  in  history  to  be 
the  forces  of  material  nature,  acting  ou  human  character  and  human  will; 
the  spiritualistic  theory  which  attributes  to  the  soul  of  man  a  certain 
freedom  of  purpose  and  will,  acting  independently  of  its  material  sur- 
roundings; and  the  theistic  theory,  which  attributes  great  movements  and 
changes  in  the  world's  history  to  the  special  interposition  of  an  overrulino- 
Providence,  a  Divine  will,  and  thus  makes  "  (Jod  in  history"  the  supreme 
source  of  all  the  great  events  that  have  marked  the  intellectual,  social,  and 
moral  progress  of  mankind.  'J'hese  theories  may,  however,  be  called  the 
metaphysics  of  history;  they  are  not  essential  to  the  investigation  of  the 
laws  which  constitute  its  philosophy;  inasmuch  as  the  generalizations  upon 
which  these  laws  are  based,  are  chiefly  independent  of  them,  the  course 
of  human  events,  like  the  course  of  nature,  being  controlled  only  by 
general  laws. 

AVhat  has  already  been  suggested  has  exclusive  reference  to  facts,  or 
statements  of  facts,  accepted  as  such;  but  there  is  another  department  of 
Scmrces  of  '"''^^^''^  which  concerns  the  sources  of  history,  their  nature  and 

Mstorxj.  credibility;  and  this  has  an  indisputable  claim  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  those  who  teach,  and  those  who  studv  history  in  its  ad- 
vanced stages.  Two  objects  will  be  subserved  by  this:  '(1)  Tlie  mind  will 
acquire  the  useful  habit  of  withholding  its  assent  from  all  statements  that 
are  not  supjiorted  by  sufticient  testimony;  and  (2)  'i'he  judgment  and 
critical  faculty  will  receive  a  practical  culture  which  must  prove  of  great 
service  in  the  further  prosecution  of  study,  and  in  the  affairs  of  daily  life. 
In  the  prosecution  of  this  historical  criticism,  the  student  is  invariably  to 
consider  (1)  the  writer  or  writers  from  whom  the  narration  proceeds, 
(2)  their  means  of  information,  (3)  their  character  for  sagacity  and  dis- 
cernment, (4)  their  interests,  associations,  and  affections.  All  these  in- 
evitably color  the  narrative,  and  hence  constitute  an  important  element  to 
be  considered  in  the  kind  and  degree  of  credibility  to  which  it  is  entitled. 
—  In  the  struggle,  for  scnne  time  in  progress,  between  the  friends  of  classic- 
al and  of  scientific  studies,  history  as  a  branch  of  education  holds  a  strong 
and  prominent  position.  AVhile  it  is  a  record  of  the  past,  it  is,  in  fact,  the 
science  of  the  future;  and  one  only  has  to  imagine  the  condition   of  the 

Value  of  ^'^^^^'  "^^'^^^  ^^^  ^ts  annals  destroyed,  to  appreciate  the  practical 

history.  '^'^^^  of  this  science.  The  studies  pertaining  to  matter  and 
force  claim  supreme  consideration  with  many;  and  those  per- 
taining to  the  mere  linguistic  expression  of  thought,  often  obsolete  and 
valueless,  with  many  others;  but  history  deals  with  the  facts  of  human  in- 
telligence and  will,  illustrates  the  ])rincip]es  which  control  the  progress  of 
mankind  in  all  the  elements  of  civilization,  and  hence  assumes  an  oftice  and 
agency  in  connection  with  human  education,  without  which  it  must  be 
measurably  ineffective  and  imjK^rfect.  —  For  a  full  list  of  references  see 
Cydopcpdia  of  Kihifutiim. 

HOME    EDUCATION    is   that   which    is    carried  on  in  Ihe  home 
circle,  or  faniily,  as  contrasted  with  that  which  is  afforded  by  the  school. 

Olfice       ^  P  ^'^  ^  certain  age,  and  within  a  certain  sphere,  home  education, 

or  its  equivalent,  is  not  only  indispensable  but  inevitable.     The 

parents  are  the  first  teachers,  esjjecially  the  mother;  and  the  educative  in- 

tluences  of  the  nursery  not  only  precede  in  time,  but  exceed  in  power 


HOME  EDUCATION  165 

those  of  the  school.       Here  the  foundation  is  laid  on  which  the  school- 
teacher must  subsequently  build;  and,  comparatively  speaking,  more  is  ac- 
complished in  the  period  of  earliest  childhood,  both  in  storing  the  mind 
and  in  forming  the    disposition  and    character,  than  during  any  equal 
.      number  of  subsequent  years.     "A  child  gains  more  ideas",  says 
tuition''^  I^rd  Brougham,  "in  the  first  four  years  of  his  life  than  ever 
afterward".     Early  home  education  consists  peculiarly  in  what 
has  been  called  unconscious  tuition,  by  means  of  which  the  plastic  nature 
of  the  young  child  is  insensibly  moulded  by  the  agencies  which  environ  it. 
The  mother  chiefly  controls  these  agencies,  which  may  be  enumerated  as 
follows:    (1)  The  affectionate  tenderness  which  she  displays,  in  ministering 
to  the  wants  and  gratifying  the  desires  of  the  child,  and  in  sym- 
education  P^^hizing  with  and  alleviating  its  distresses;  (2)  Her  behavior, 
as  being  delicate  and   refined,  or  coarse  and  rude,  —  showing 
self-restraint  and  dignity,  or  manifesting  impulsiveness  and  passion;  (3)  The 
tones  of  her  voice  —  sweet  and  tender,  or  harsh  and  dissonant,  firm  and 
decisive,  or  weak  and  yielding;     (4)  The  expression  of  her  face,  implying 
similar  traits;  (5)  The  force  of    her  will,  under  the  intelligent  guidance  of 
educational  principles  and  the  restraints  of  conscience.     Such  are  the  ele- 
ments of  a  mother's  educative  power,  —  a  poM'er  the  exercise  of  which 
results  in  forming  in  the  child  traits  of  character  that  no  succeeding  agency 
of  circumstance,  education,  or  self-discipline  can  entirely  efface.     It  will  be 
seen,  from  this  enumeration,  that  the  mother's  influence  is  rather  moral 
than  intellectual;  indeed,  the  special  period  of  its  exercise  supersedes  the 
necessity  of  aTiy  formal  cultivation  of  the  knowing  faculties.     The  child, 
during  the  first  few  years  of  its  existence  needs  little  direction 
Education  i^  t}^ig  respect.    Natural  curiosity  and  innate  activity  constantly 
intelled.    stimulate  the  growth  of  the  mind,  and  fill  it  with  those  ideas 
which  are  to  constitute,  in  succeeding  years,  the  materials  of 
thought.     It  is  just  as  absurd  to  subject  a  very  young  child  to  formal  in- 
struction as  it  would  be  to  attempt  the  development  of  its  physical  powers 
by  gymnastic  exercises.     Watchfulness  is,  however,  constantly  required  to 
check  the  formation  of  bad  habits,  which  have  just  as  strong  a  tendency  to 
spring  up  in  the  young  mind  as  rank  weeds  in  a  virgin  soil.     (See  Habit.) 
The  period  of  exclusive  home  education  here  referred  to  being  so  decisive 
of  the  future  character  of  the  child,  and  the  mother  being  the  first  and 
most  effective  of  all  educators,  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  science  of  edu- 
cation, in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  should  constitute  an 
^'^^TthT^  essential  part  of  the  curriculum  of  every  female  seminary  or 
mother,     college.     Particularly  should  the   future  mother  be  taught  to 
appreciate  the  character  of  the  influence,  in  all  its  phases,  which 
she  is  to  exert;  as  well  as  to  understand  how  to  render  it  effectual  in  con- 
tributing to  the  future  welfare  of  her  child.     The  father,  at  a  somewhat 
later  period,  but  in  a  similar  manner,  is  a  powerful  educator  within  the 
circle  of  home.     Both  by  precept  and  example,  but  especially  by  the  latter, 
he  makes  life-long  impressions.   In  vain  are  precepts,  however,  if  they  are 
not  fully  supported  by  example.     The  impressions,  both  intel- 
I^ral      lectual  and  moral,  received  by  children  in  very  many  of  the 
^ofhome.   ^P"ie   circles  of  what  are  considered  the  better  classes  of  so- 
ciety, are  rather  debasing  than  elevating.     The  complaint  is 


166  HOME  EDUCATION 

often  made  by  teachers  that  the  children  placed  under  their  care  are  so 
dejiraved  by  bad  home  training,  or  in  consequence  of  absolute  neglect,  that 
their  efforts  to  discipline  and  instruct  these- pupils  are  almost  useless.  This 
is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  as  school  education  can,  in  most  cases,  only  sup- 
plement that  of  home;  and  because  the  influences  that  center  in  the  latter 
are  always  more  potent  than  those  wielded  by  the  former,  chiefly  because 
school  education  is  primarily  intellectual;  whereas  that  of  home  is  primarily 
moral.    At  any  rate  such  is  the  fact  generally. 

After  the  period  of  formal  instruction  has  arrived,  the  question  arises 
in  the  minds  of  many  parents,  whether  it  is  better  to  detain  the  child  at 
home  to  be  instructed  by  private  tutors  or  to  submit  it  to  the  discipline 
and  instruction  of  the  school.  This  question  has  been  much  discussed  by 
educators.  The  following  arguments  are  generally  adduced  to 
Adnantage!^Y)j.QYQ  t^j^t  the  education  acquired  in  school  is  to  be  preferred  to 
s  hool  ^^y  *^^^  ^^  possible  by  private  tutors  at  home:  (1)  The  intellectual 
training  is  more  effective;  since  the  boy  or  girl  coming  in  com- 
petition with  those  of  the  same  age  is  stinmlated  to  greater  exertions  than 
would  be  possible  in  any  system  of  home  instruction.  As  Quintilian  says: 
•'At  home,  the  boy  can  learn  only  what  is  taught  himself;  at  school,  he  will 
also  learn  what  is  taught  to  others.  He  will  hear  many  things  approved; 
many  others,  corrected.  The  reproof  of  a  fellow  pupil's  idleness  will  be  a 
good  lesson  to  him;  as  will,  likewise,  the  praise  of  his  neighbor's  industry. 
He  will  think  it  disgraceful  to  yield  to  his  equals  in  age,  and  great  honor 
to  excel  his  seniors.  All  these  matters  arouse  the  powers  of  the  mind;  and 
if  ambition  be  an  evil,  it  is  often  the  parent  of  virtue".  The  child  edu- 
cated at  home  can  never  reahze  the  full  extent  of  his  own  powers,  having 
no  standard  by  which  to  measure  them.  Hence,  he  is  satisfied  with  meager 
results,  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  likely  to  be  filled  with  self-conceit.  It 
is,  however,  scarcely  disputed  that  the  school,  as  a  mimic  Avorld,  presents 
a  variety  of  incentives  which  a  home  education  could  never  afford;  and  that 
it  is  favorable  to  rapid  mental  growth.  But  it  is  its  influence  on  the  moral 
nature  that  has  been  chiefly  called  iu  question.  Home  has  been  depicted 
as  the  abode  of  purity  and  innocence,  —  of  kindness,  gentleness,  and  affec- 
tion, —  of  courtesy  and  refinement, —  of  morality  and  religious  influence; 
and  such  it  ought  to  be,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped,  often  is.  From  such  an 
atmosphere,  the  home-bred  child  is  at  once  introduced  into  a  new,  and  to 
him  utterly  unknown,  world.  Instead  of  sympathy,  he  finds,  among  hia 
school-mates,  indifference;  instead  of  courtesy  and  kindness,  a  thoughtless 
disregard  of  all  weakness,  either  of  mind  or  body,  except,  indeed,  to  turn 
it  into  ridicule.  He  finds  that,  if  he  is  not  mindful  of  himself,  and 
sufficiently  self-assertive,  he  will  be  borne  down  in  the  mass.  There  is  an 
antagonism  —  an  aggres-sivcness  in  those  around  him  that  begets  caution 
and  re.si.stance;  there  is  a  sense  of  danger  that  cultivates  courage,  and  a 
matter-of-fact  spirit  that  cruslics  out  egotism  and  sensitiveness.  Thus  the 
boy,  in  the  little  world  of  the  school,  is  prepared  for  the  greater  school 
beyond.  Better,  therefore,  it  would  appear,  is  it  to  unite  the  education  of 
a  good  school  with  that  of  a  jiroperly  ordered  family,  in  which  combination 
the  evils  of  school  life  will  bo  neutralized  by  the  stronger  and  purer  in- 
fluences of  home.  Not  home  o?-  school,  but  home  and  school,  constitutes 
the  proper  agency  for  the  education  of  childi'cn,  whether  boys  or  girls.     It 


HOME  LESSONS  l67 

IS  the  opinion  of  some,  however,  that  admitting  the  advantages,  in  general, 
of  a  school  education,  that  of  home  generates  certain  peculiar  traits  and 
excellencies  of  character  which  are  essential  to  the  welfare  of  society. 

HOME  LESSONS,  or  Home  Studies.    The  question  whether  home 

lessons,  or  home  studies,  should  be  a  part  of  the  system  of  instruction  in 

.       schools  of  different  grades,  and  if  so,  to  what  extent  they  should 

''oppe'y  bg  permitted,  and  in  what  manner  they  should  be  pursued  and  su- 
pervised by  the  teacher,  is  one  of  considerable  importance,  which 
is  still  extensively  discussed  by  ■m-iters  on  education.  The  need  of  home 
lessons  for  pupils  of  secondary  and  higher  schools  has  never  been  disputed. 
In  regard  to  the  schools  of  a  lower  grade,  many  physicians  have  strongly 
objected  to  any  kind  of  home  lessons,  as  long  as  the  children  are  required 
to  spend  from  4  to  5  hours  a  day  in  the  school  room.  Their  arguments 
are,  however,  chiefly  directed  against  the  length  of  the  school  sessions. 
From  an  educational  point  of  view,  it  has  justly  been  urged  by  recent 
writers,  that  the  regulation  of  this  matter  must  chiefly  depend  on  the 
f)j  ■        f    question,  for  what  purpose  should  home  lessons  be  given.     On 

J^c  oj  ^j^jg  point,  educators,  at  the  present  time,  are  much  more  nearly 
agreed  than  formerly.  Xo  writer  of  note  wiU,  nowadays,  maintain  that 
home  lessons  should  be  for  the  mere  purpose  of  preventing  idleness  —  of 
keeping  the  children  busy,  or  as  a  punishment  for  delinquencies;  but  it  is 
agreed  that  all  home  studies  should  aim  at  training  the  pupils  to  self- 
exertion,  at  giving  them  the  ability  to  depend  upon  their  own  efforts  as 
students,  and  by  degrees,  to  dispense  with  the  aid  of  a  teacher.  If  this 
principle  is  accepted,  several  corollaries  are  self-evident.  Home  lessons 
^.  should  not  begin  at  too  early  an  age.     Young  children  need  the 

irec  ions,  g^pervigion  of  a  teacher  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  those  of 
a  more  advanced  age,  and  are  much  less  fitted  to  spend  their  time 
profitably  without  direct  guidance.  Moreover,  while  the  school  sessions 
for  young  children  are  as  long  as  for  older  ones,  the  medical  warning  not 
to  overwork  the  brain,  applies  with  much  greater  force  to  the  home  lessons 
of  the  former  than  to  those  of  the  latter.  Special  care  should  be  taken 
that  aU  the  children  fully  understand  the  work  which  they  are  required  to 
perform  at  home,  and  that  they  are  competent  to  do  it.  No  child  of  good 
standing  in  the  class  shoiild  feel  it  necessary  to  apply  to  his  parents  or 
adult  friends  for  help.  It  is  especially  this  point  that  is  so  apt  to  be 
disregarded  by  teachers.  Parents  have  a  right  to  object  to  any  home  lesson 
or  exercise  which  requires,  in  the  case  of  diligent  pupils,  any  help  in 
addition  to  that  of  the  teacher.    All  exercises  of  this  kind  prove 

^m'd^""*^  torment,  and  are  absolutely  injurious.      "The  school",  says 
Diesterweg,  "  must  teach  the  method  of  home  studies.     It  is  not 
enough  that  the  home  lesson  be  appropriate  in  itself;  the  pupil  must  be 
enabled  to  prepare  it  in  a  proper  manner.     How  often  pcjor  children  tor- 
ment themselves  where  this  is  not  taught !    The  teacher  should  show  them 
how  to  memorize,  how  to  prepare  or  review  a  lesson,  how  to  write  a  compo- 
sition, by  previously  memorizing,  preparing,  reviewing,  etc.,  with  them  at 
school.    Thus  the  teacher  becomes  the  pupil's  friend,  and  this  is  more  than 
.        to  be  his  master  ".    Moreover,  when  pupils  are  required  to  ^vrite 
^'^'^^'  exercises  at  home,  the  teacher  should  faithfully  correct  them. 
The  failure  to  do  this  fosters  habits  of  carelessness.    Many  teachers  greatly 


1 G8  IIORN-P.OOK  —  HYGIEXE 

err  in  this  regard,  burdening  children  with  tlic  task  of  writing  pages  of 
exercises,  and  correcting  but  few,  or  none,  of  them.  Certainly,  no  teacher 
who  is  guilty  of  so  serious  a  mistake,  can  be  regarded  as  understanding  the 
work  cither  of  instruction  or  of  discipline. 

HORN-BOOK,  a  book  consisting  of  a  single  page,  fonnerly  used  to 
teach  children  the  alphabet  and  other  simple  rudiments.  It  was,  in  fact, 
the  first  page  of  the  primer,  pasted  on  a  thin  board,  which  terminated  in  a 
handle,  and  having,  fastened  over  the  printed  matter,  a  thin  plate  of  trans- 
parent horn,  to  protect  it  from  being  soiled  or  torn  by  the  young  learner. 
yee  Cfidopa'dia  of  Education. 

HUMANITIES  (Lat.  humaviora  or  Uierce  liumaniores),  those 
branches  of  education  or  study,  which  are  included  in  what  is  called  polite 
or  elegant  learning,  as  languages,  grammar,  rhetoric,  philology,  and  poetry, 
with  all  that  pertains  to  what  is  called  polite  literature,  including  the 
ancient  classics.  The  name  implies  that  the  study  of  these  branches,  in 
opposition  to  the  physical  sciences,  which  especially  develop  the  intellectual 
faculties,  has  a  tendency  to  humanize  man,  —  to  cultivate  particularly 
those  faculties  which  distinguish  him  as  man,  in  all  his  relations,  social 
and  moral;  tliat  is,  which  make  him  a  truly  cultured  man. 

HYGIENE,  School,  has  reference   to  that   department   of   school 

administration,  which  pertains  to  the  preservation  of  physical  health,   'i'his 

is  to  be  distinguished   from   physical   education,  which  looks 

>J<'c  oj  j.j^^{,gj.  iq  ^^^q  special  training  or  developing  of  the  body;  while 
hygienic  principles  and  rules  have  for  their  object  to  preserve  that  condi- 
tion of  health  in  which  all  pupils  are  supposed  to  enter  school,  and,  by 
their  constant  though  unobtrusive  influence,  to  make  that  condition 
permanent. 

The  subject  of  the  preservation  and  promotion  of  physical  health  in 
the  school  involves  the  following  considerations:  (I)  the  character  of  the 
site  on  which  the  school  building  is  erected;  (II)  the  mode  of 
Considera-  constructing  the  building,  as  well  as  the  location  and  construc- 
incolved  *^""  ^^  ^^^^  out-buildings, —  water-closets,  etc.;  (Ill)  the  construc- 
tion and  arrangement  of  the  class-rooms;  (IV")  the  size,  number, 
and  distribution  of  the  windows  for  the  admission  of  light;  (V)  the  mode 
of  ventilation;  (VI)  the  manner  of  heating  the  rooms,  and  the  average  tem- 
perature preserved  in  them  by  artificial  heat;  (V^II)  the  adaptation  of  the 
school  furniture  to  the  physical  wants  and  condition  of  the  children; 
(YIII)  the  kind  of  discipline  employed,  in  regard  to  hygienic  principles; 
(IX)  the  degree  of  attention  given  to  the  personal  condition  of  the  pupils, 
so  as  to  preserve  cleanliness  and  prevent  the  communication  of  disease; 
and  (X)  the  means  afforded  for  physical  exercise.  Each  of  these  will  be 
considered  in  its  order,  according  to  the  above  enumeration. 

I.  .Modern  sanitary  science,  fortunately,  has  given  such  particular 
attention  to  the  subjects  of  site  and  exposure,  and  has  impressed  the  public 
mind  so  thoroughly  with  the  necessity  of  their  healthfulness, 
that  only  willful  ignorance  or  obstinacy  will,  in  our  day,  permit 
a  building  designed  for  human  occupancy  to  be  placed  in  a  manifestly  un- 
healthy location.  The  healthfulness  of  a  school  site  depends  upon  (1)  the 
character  of  the  soil;  (2)  its  elevation ;  (3)  the  circumstances  which  facilitate 
or  obstruct  proper  drainage;  (4)  its  remoteness  from  any  stagnant  water, 


i 


HYGIENE  169 

or  marshy  ground,  liable  to  produce  malarial  fevers;  (5)  its  remoteness 
from  any  factory  or  establishment  poisoning  the  air  by  the  issue  of 
deleterious  and  offensive  gases;  to  which  may  be  added  (6)  the  amount  of 
space  it  affords  for  play-grounds,  so  as  to  facilitate  physical  exercise. 

II.  The  construction  of  the  school  building  will  depend  on  the  number 
of  pupils  to  be  accommodated;  the  kind  of  school,  as  regards  the  sexes;  and 

the  grade,  —  whether  primary,  grammar,  or  high  school.  (See 
huildUia     School-House.)     In  regard  to  water-closets  and  urinals,  it  is 

hardly  necessary  to  say,  that  they  should,  for  convenience,  be  as 
near  the  school-house  as  possible,  without  being  near  enough  to  allow  the 
perception  of  any  odor.  'I'he  approaches  from  the  school  house  should  be 
imder  cover,  the  ventilation  and  the  supply  of  light  should  be  ample.  They 
should  also  be  enclosed  from  observation. 

III.  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Class  Booms.  —  This  varies 
with  the  conditions  under  which  the  school-house  is  built.     The  rooms, 

however,  should  always  be  constructed  so  as  to  allow  at  least 
rooms     ^^^  cubic  feet  of  air-space  to  each  pupil,  and  9  square  feet  of 

floor-space.  The  height  of  ceiling  recommended  by  the  best 
authorities  is  a  minimum  of  12  feet  and  a  maximum  of  15  feet,  if  the  room 
is  not  very  large.  These  provisions  are  absolutely  necessary  to  furnish  to 
each  pupil  the  amount  of  air  necessary  for  health.     (See  Ventilation.) 

IV.  Currie,  in  School  Ed ucatio}i,  remarks:    "The  provision  for  light- 
ing a  school  should  have  two  ends  in  view:    (1)  a  proper  amount  of  light, 

and  (2)  its  just  distribution.  The  effect  either  of  an  excess  or 
Wmaoics.  ^  dehciency  of  light  is  to  strain  the  eye  and  cause  a  depression 
of  spirits,  especially  as  the  day  advances.  In  regard  to  distribution,  all  the 
parts  of  the  school  should  be  equally  lighted,  which  may  be  more  easily 
done  with  a  few  judiciously  placed  windows  of  respectable  size  than  with 
a  number  of  smaller,  straggling  apertures.  Good  ways  of  lighting  a  school 
are  these  :  (1)  Perhaps,  the  best  of  all  is  when  the  light  is  admitted  from 
the  roof,  as  it  is  then  steady,  equable,  and  free  from  shadow.  (2)  T  he  win- 
dows may  be  placed  iu  the  ends  of  the  school  room,  or  in  two  adjacent 
sides,  so  as  to  admit  the  light  from  the  pupil's  left.  AVhere  there  are  win- 
dows in  front  of  the  classes,  they  should  be  at  some  distance  from  them, 
and  in  every  case  they  should  be  at  such  height  in  the  walls  as  to  remove 
all  danger  from  drafts  when  they  are  opened.  School  windows  should  be 
of  the  same  shape  as  ordinary  house  windows;  at  any  rate,  lattice  windows, 
with  numerous,  small,  lozenge-shaped  panes  of  glass  should  be  avoided,  as 
the  liglit  transmitted  through  them  is  so  broken  as  to  be  extremely  fatig- 
uing to  the  eye.  (3)  Each  window  should  be  fitted  with  blinds  to  moder- 
ate the  intensity  of  light,  when  necessary,  particularly  to  exclude  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  If  the  windows  are  used  for  ventilation  as  well  as  hght- 
ing,  tha  difficulty  of  using  the  blinds  in  such  a  case  may  be  obviated  by 
having  a  fixed  Venetian  blind  outside  the  window  at  the  top.  and  hanging 
the  inside  blind  on  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  it.  (4)  'J'he  tint  of  the 
school  walls  should  neither  be  too  dull,  so  as  to  absorb  the  light  unduly, 
nor  too  glaring,  so  as  to  dazzle  the  eye  by  reflection.  Of  the  colors  com- 
monly employed:  namely,  the  white,  the  ocher,  the  stone  color,  and  the 
lightish  brown,  the  last  two  are  obviously  to  be  preferred".  If  the  lighting 
of  the  school  room  is  from  the  roof,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  windows 


170  HYGIENE 

or  sky-lights  should  not  slope  to  the  south  or  west,  as  the  heat  and  sunlight 
■will  be  intolerable  in  hot  weather,  and  their  regulation  by  blinds  will  bo 
difficult.  If  the  lighting,  on  the  other  hand,  is  by  side  windows,  "  the 
height  of  the  window  sills  from  the  floor",  says  Robson  {ux  School  Architect- 
ure) "  should  always  be  considerable,  and  the  heads  near  the  ceiling.  Much 
of  the  cheerfulness  of  a  school  room,  especially  in  a  town,  depends  on  the 
amount  of  sky  which  can  be  seen  from  the  windows.  The  height  of  the 
sills  from  the  floor,  therefore,  should  never  be  less  than  five  feet,  and  may 
be  even  more  with  advantage.  This  will  enable  the  top  or  head  to  be 
placed  nearly,  if  not  quite,  up  to  the  ceiling,  and  then  the  upper  stratum 
of  vitiated  air  can  be  more  readily  removed".  The  importance  of  this  sub- 
ject in  regard  to  health  is  very  great.  Liebreich,  in  his  report  to  the  Col- 
lege of  Preceptors  of  London  (July,  1872),  attributes  several  diseases  of  the 
eye  to  this  cause  alone;  and  Ur.  Cohn  asserts  that  of  410  students  ex- 
amined by  him,  only  one-third  possessed  good  eye-sight,  the  remaining 
two  thirds  having  had  their  sight  injured,  in  his  opinion,  by  the  deficient 
lighting  of  the  school  rooms  iu  which  they  studied.  A  rough  calculation, 
from  researches  made  on  the  subject,  gives  200  square  inches  of  window 
glass  as  the  proper  number  for  each  scholar.  In  the  above  remarks  by 
Currie,  the  left  side  has  been  designated  as  the  one  from  which  the  light 
should  come,  because  this  insures  the  fullest  illumination  of  the  page,  with 
the  least  inconvenience,  and  the  least  injury  to  the  eye.  When  light  is 
admitted  through  the  front  of  the  room,  the  glare  is  directly  in  the  face 
either  of  teacher  or  pupils,  they  being  supposed  to  face  each  other.  If  it 
falls  from  behind,  the  shadow  of  the  head  is  thrown  directly  upon  the 
page;  if  from  the  right  side,  the  shadows  of  the  arm  and  hand,  in  the  act 
of  writing,  equally  obscure  it.  The  light,  therefore,  should  fall 
Ukti  w  ^''^'^  *^^  '^^^  SL^^Q,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  from  above.  In  even- 
ing schools,  the  lighting  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  equal  to 
that  by  day.  If  gas  is  used,  the  glass  cylinder  with  a  reflecting  shade  is 
recommended,  for  the  purpose  of  steadying  the  light  and  making  it  stronger 
and  whiter.  Ground  glass  shades  are  now  generally  discountenanced,  their 
effect  being  to  diffuse  the  light.  For  general  illuminating  purposes  they 
are  desirable,  as  in  the  parlor  or  concert  room;  but  are  out  of  place  in  the 
school  room,  or  in  any  room  where  the  object  is  to  concentrate  light  upon 
a  particular  spot. 

V,  The  Mode  of  Ventilation.     See  Yemilatiox, 
"VI.  Many   methods,  based   upon   ingenious  theories  and  provoking 
heated  discussion,  have  been  adopted  to  overcome  the  difficulties  attending 
this  subject;  but  it  is,  probably,  not  unfair  to  say  that  an  en- 
heatina     ^^^^^7  unobjectionable  heating  apparatus,  as  regards  health,  has 
yet  to  be  devised.    Wood  is,  of  course,  too  dear  for  general  use. 
The  ordinary  stove,  the  cellar  furnace,  and  all  devices  for  warming  air  by 
passing  it  over  heated  metal  surfaces  are  now  entirely  discountenanced,  it 
having  been  discovered  that  a  highly  poisonous  gas  is  set  free,  and  passes 
through  heated  metal  as  through  a  sieve.     The  steam  coil,  placed  outside 
of  the  school  room  and  heating  a  column  of  air  which  is  drawn  from  the 
outside,  and,  after  heating,  ascends  into  the  room,  has,  of  late,  been  exten- 
sively used.     At  the  opposite  end  of  the  room,  a  grate,  varying  in  size 
with  that  of  the  room,  is  placed;  the  theory  being  that,  as  the  heated  air 


HYGIENE  ni 

ascends  in  one  end  of  the  room,  the  cool  and  foul  air  is  forced  out  at  the 
other  through  the  flue  of  the  grate,  in  which  a  fire  is  usually  kept  to  facili- 
tate the  current.  This  method,  while  perhaps  the  least  objectionable  of 
any,  has  been  opposed  on  the  ground,  that  by  it  the  stratum  of  air  nearest 
the  ceiling  is  kept  warmest,  while  that  nearest  the  floor,  which  should  be 
the  warmest,  is  least  so.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  it  has  even  been  pro- 
posed to  make  the  floor  of  stone  and  warm  it  after  the  manner  of  an  oven, 
i.  e.,  by  kindling  a  fire  under  it.  Whatever  method  is  adopted,  however, 
fluctuations  of  temperature  should,  as  much  as  possible,  be  avoided,  and 
the  air  of  the  room  should  be  kept  steadily  at  from  65  to  70  degrees. 

VII.  Several  diseases  have  been  traced  to  faultily-constructed  school 
furniture,  chief  among  which  is  curvature  of  the  spine,  with  the  diseases 

^     consequent  upon  it.    This  is  sometimes  the  result  of  insufficient 
urm  w  e.  ligi^tj^g.  ^^^  more  frequently  it  arises  from  the  improper  con- 
struction of  the  desk  and  seat,  or  the  arrangement  of  them.     (See  School 
Furniture.) 

VIII.  The  methods  of  discipline  which  militate  against  bodily  health 
are  fortunately  growing  less  in  every  civilized  country,  as  more  study  is 
TJ-.  .  ,.       given  to  the  subject  of  education.     It  may  be  said  briefly  that 

tscipme.  -^yhatever  discipline  tends  to  bodily  deterioration  in  any  way 
should  be  discountenanced,  as  the  object  of  discipline  is  to  train,  not  to 
break  down.     (See  Disctplixe.)     Of  the  errors,  under  the  head  of  school 
management,  which  affect  health  may  be  mentioned  those  which  arise 
from  (1)  the  length  of  the  daily  school  sessio7i.    These  errors  are  frequently 
due  to  the  fact  that  courses  of  study  are  laid  down  first,  with 
sessions.  *^®  ^^^^  °^  accomplishing  a  certain  result,   and  the  pupils' 
powers  are  made  to  conform  to  them.     By  this  inversion  of  the 
natural  method,  sessions  of  five  and  six  hours,  with  only  slight  intermis- 
sions, are  sometimes  ordered;  this  can  result  only  in  physical  injury.    The 
reversal  of  this,  i.  e. ,  a  study  of  the  child "s  physical  necessities  first,  and  a 
school  course  based  on  them,  will  insure  the  adoption  of  the  only  safe  and 
reasonable  method  consistent  with  health.    This  should  be  so  arranged,  by 
a  judicious  alternation  of  sedentary  occupations,  physical  exercises,  and  re- 
cesses, that  no  "violation  of  the  primary  laws  of  physiology",  as  Prof.  Owen 
terms  it,  may  be  possible.     In  a  room  supplied  with  proper  hygienic  facili- 
ties, four  hours  per  day  is  thought  to  be  the  maximum  for  very  young  pu- 
pils, and  five  hours  for  older  ones.     (2)  The  number,  length,  and  distribu- 
tion of  recesses  must  vary  with  the  different  ages  of  the  children  to  such  an 
extent,  that  the  only  practicable  guide  for  their  regulation  must 
hecesses.    -^^  found  in  the  discretion  of  the  teacher.     It  may  be  said,  in 
general,  however,  that  the  weariness  of  the  pupil,  which  is  shown  by  his 
restlessness  and  want  of  attention,  furnishes  the  best  indication  of  the  time 
when  the  ordinary  text-book  studies  should  be  superseded  by  physical  ex- 
ercises, or  by  the  absolute  recreation  of  the  play-ground.    (3)  The  number, 
length,  and  distribution  of  vacations  are,  in  a  general  way,  governed  by 
the  same  consideration  that  prescribes  the  number,  length,  and 
ca  ions,  (jistpibution  ^f  recesses;  namely,  the  freshness,  both  mental  and 
physical,  of  the  pupil,  with  such  modifications  as  may  be  suggested  by 
climate,  prevailing  contagious  diseases,  or  other  conditions.    The  tendency, 
of  late  years,  in  the  United  States,  has  been  to  begin  the  school  session 


172  HYGIENE 

about  the  first  of  September,  and  to  continue  it  uninterruptedh'  --  with  a 
slight  intermission  of  a  week  during  the  holidays  —  till  the  following  June 
or  July.     By  this  arrangement,  a  long,  continuous  vacation  is  insured  dur- 
ing the  warmest  season  of  the  year,  when,  it  is  claimed,  rest  is  most 
needed.     It   has   been   objected   to   this,  and    perhaps  with  reason,  that 
the  heat  of  the  summer  months  renders  them  unfavorable  for  that  out- 
door exercise  which  is  most  needed  for  the  recuperation  of  the  system, 
and  that  the  health  of  pupils  would   be   promoted   rather   by  confining 
them  indoors.     As  long,  however,  as  the  summer  heats  are  avoided  by 
a    flight  to  the  sea-shore  or  the   mountains,  tliis   practice  will  probably 
prevail;  and  though  it  may  be  said  that  the  poor  of  cities,  who  are  by 
far  the  largest  patrons  of  the  public  schools,  cannot  afford  to  leave  the 
city  for   summer   retreats,  it  must  be  remembered,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  the  greater  prevalence  of  fatal  diseases  in  cities,  during  the  summer 
months,  renders  a  vacation  desirable  even  in  their  case.      (4)    The  regu- 
lations of  /he  school  may,  by  their  severity,  seriously  interfere 
Jiegula-     yif[i\^  bodily  health,  by  checking  or  entirely  repressing  that  activ- 
ity which  is  so  marked  a  characteristic  of  childhood  and  youth. 
Keid,  in  his  Principles  of  Edxcation,  says,  "There  is  nothing  in  which 
parents  are  often   more   tyrannical  and   unreasonable  than  in  expecting 
children  to  be  quiet  and  good,  and  give  them  little  trouble,  when  they 
will  not  put  themselves  to  the  least  trouble  to  find  suitable  occupation  for 
the  active  and  restless  faculties  of  their  cliildren.     The  trouble  that  a  child 
gives  to  those  in  charge  of  it,  should  very  often  be  viewed  as  an  effort  of 
nature  to  recall  them  to  their  neglected  duty".     The  degree  and  kind  of 
restraint,  exercised  over  pupils,  tlierefore  deserve  careful  consideration.    In 
this  connection  must  be  condemned  all  those  restrictions  which 
Restraint,    j-^prcss,  for  any  considerable  time,  that  innate  activity  which  is 
a  necessity  of  the  child's  very  being,  and  the  repre.ssion  of  which,  though 
not  immediately  and  actively  productive  of  disease,  becomes  passively  so 
by  the  condition  of  atrophy  which  it  tends  to  produce.     Want  of  exercise 
is  frequently  as  inimical  to  health  as  excess  of  it.      The  number  and  length 
of  lessons,  also,  by  their  excess  may  become  physically  injurious. 
.essons.     "With  young  children",  C'urrie  says,  '-a  le.sson  sh(juld  not  aver- 
age in  duration  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  on  no  account  exceed 
twenty  minutes.     It  is  hard  enough  to  sustain  the  attention,  even  for  this 
period;  and  no  child  will  be  able  to  retain  more  than  we  can  tell  him 
within   it.     'i'he  teacher  should  subdivide  his  lesson  rather  than  trespass 
beyond  this  limit,     fjcssons  of  different  kinds,  i.   e.,  occupying  different 
seases,  shoiild  follow  each  other;  this  is  a  great  relief.  It  is  absurd  to  speak 
of  these  fretiuent  changes  as  causing  loss  of  time".      Excitement  and  over- 
work, also,  should  be  avoideil.     The  same  general  directions,  however, 
given  in  regard  to  the  number  and  length  of  recesses,  are  applicable  here. 
'J'he  Ic.s.sons  assigned  by  the  teacher  and  studied  in  his  presence  may  be 
easily  directed;   but  those  wdiich  are  pursued  at  home  should  receive  equal 
attention,     (.-^ee  Home  Les.sons.) 

IX.     Cleanliness,  being  a  necessary  condition   of   health,    should   be 

strenuously  insisted  upon.     Cleanliness  of  the  person  will  sometimes  be 

Personal  found,  especially  in  schools  among  the  very  poor,  to  be  neglected. 

habits.      The  danger  of  the  outbreak  of  disease,  or  of  its  communication 


DIAGIXATIOX  173 

from  this  source,  is  always  great  in  large  schools;  aud,  therefore,  the 
frequent  use  of  the  lavatory,  in  such  cases,  is  necessary.  Cleanliness 
of  clothing  is  no  less  necessary  to  prevent  the  communication  of  disease. 
Realizing  the  neglect  of  a  proper  care  of  the  clothing,  natural  to  children 
through  thoughtlessness,  many  school  boards  have  made  the  daily  dusting 
and  brushing  of  clothes  by  the  pupils  a  part  of  the  school  routine.  In 
Germany,  this  is  often  insisted  upon,  and  the  necessary  provision  made 
at  the  expense  of  the  school.  Cleanliness  of  habits  is  a  no  less  essential 
condition  of  good  health,  and  should  be  watched,  as  far  as  may  be,  and  en- 
forced with  a  view  to  the  prevention  of  ill  health.  It  frequently  happens 
that  diseases,  more  or  less  contagious  in  their  nature,  break  out  in  schools, 
and  lead  to  the  closing  of  the  schools  for  a  time,  with  sometimes  more 
serious  results.  In  many  cases,  these  could  have  been  prevented,  or  con- 
fined to  the  original  case,  by  a  proper  precaution  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  Ophthalmia,  hooping-cough,  scrofula,  scarlet  fever,  small-pox,  and 
skin  diseases,  whether  of  the  head  or  the  body,  are  cases  of  this  kind.  A 
slight  knowledge  of  the  symptoms  should  apprise  an  intelligent  teacher  of 
the  danger  at  once,  and  secure  the  removal  of  the  case  to  the  home  or  the 
hospital. 

X.   That  exercise  is  one  of  the  most  effective  of  all  agencies  in  preventing 

disease,  is   now  generally  admitted,  though  the  excess  to  which  it  is  often 

.        carried  in  our  day  has,  for  some  time,  been  creating  a  reaction 

exercise     ^g^i^st  it.     The  phase  of  the  question  which  calls  for  attention 

here,  is  its  use  not  so  much  as  a  means  of  development,  as  in 

promoting  health.     On  this  account,  one  of  the  most  important  accessories 

of  the  school-house  is  the  play-growid.    A^'hether  this  is  used  as  a  place 

for  continuing  the  discipline  of  the  school  room,  or  simply  as  a  spot  where 

children  may  be  absolutely  free  to  pureue  their  games,  its  size,  location, 

and  exposure  should  be  carefully  considered. 

IMAGINATION,  Culture  of.  Imagination  is  the  power  by  which 
conceptions,  originally  formed  from  the  perception  of  natural  objects  or 
their  representatives,  are  reproduced  in  a  fictitious  combination  which 
resembles  the  natural.  This  faculty,  existing  as  it  does,  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree,  in  every  mind,  and  entering  to  some  extent  into  almost  every 
mental  act,  must  be  placed  among  the  few  great  powers  of  the  mind  which 
demand  careful  cultivation.  The  influence  of  the  imagination 
Influence,  jg  equally  felt  in  moral  and  intellectual  action.  By  its  aid,  the 
man  of  science,  recombining  the  elements  gathered  by  an  observation  of 
the  visible  world  around  him,  projects  his  thought  into  the  unseen  universe, 
aud  determines  the  existence  of  conditions  which  knowledge  alone  could 
never  detect,  but  which  observation  serves  only  to  confirm.  Through  the 
influence  of  imagination  alone,  the  record  of  the  past  becomes  a  guide  and 
a  warning  to  the  present.  Thus,  the  hand  of  charity  is  opened  to  relieve 
necessities  which  the  active  exercise  of  this  faculty  pictures  to  us  as  exist- 
ing in  the  homes  of  want  and  misery.  The  every-day  thought  of  the  boor, 
and  the  rare  flight  of  the  man  of  genius  are  alike  indebted  to  its  aid.  The 
universality  of  its  presence,  therefore,  and  the  danger  attending  its  unregu- 
lated development,  constitute  its  peculiar  cl^ira  to  attention  at  the  hands  of 
the  educator, 


17  i  IMAGIXATIOX 

Xotvvithstanding  this,  however,  the  need  of  a  systematic  cultivation  of 
the   imaginative  faculty   seldom  receives  practical  recognition.      This  is 

owing  somewhat  to  the  fact  that  the  want  which  would  be 
Culture.  prQiiuced  by  its  total  neglect,  is  partly  met  by  its  indirect  and 
irregular  cultivation  in  the  studies  of  any  ordinary  school  course;  but  more 
to  the  hidden  nature  of  its  action,  and  the  want  of  that  subtle  discernment 
necessary  in  the  teacher  to  detect  its  influence  in  the  mental  operations  of 
the  pupil.  A  knowledge  of  its  power  and  of  the  consequent  need  of  its 
cultivation  is  derived  almost  entirely  from  our  own  experience.  The  ex- 
tent, therefore,  to  which  it  influences  or  controls  the  judgment,  is  appreciable 
only  in  our  own  case,  and  in  that  only  approximately;  and,  hence,  an 
analysis  of  its  effect  on  the  thought  or  actions  of  others  becomes  a  matter 
^  of   extreme  difficulty.     The   neglect   of  its  cultivation  in  the 

Meg.ec .  ordinary  school  curriculum  is  productive  of  results  hardly  less 
pernicious  than  its  abuse  by  undue  stimulation;  for,  while  by  the  latter 
the  judgment  and  reason  arc  subordinated,  and  the  mind  is  turned  from 
the  consideration  of  the  practical,  and  concentrated  too  exclusively  upon 
the  ideal,  thus  enveloping  the  daily  concerns  of  life  in  a  kind  of  mental 
mirage,  which  results  in  disappointment  and  discouragement  when  the 
cloud  is  dispersed;  by  the  former,  the  duU,  matter-of-fact  phase  of  existence 
acquires  undue  prominence,  to  the  suppi-ession  of  all  sentiment  and  that 
love  of  the  beautiful  which  cheers  and  helps  us  to  find,  even  in  the  com- 
monest aspects  and  the  least  fortunate  circumstances  of  life,  reason  for 
admiration  and  gratitude.  These  considerations  should  secure  for  it  care- 
ful attention. 

The  development  of  the  imaginative  faculty  begins  at  a  very  early 
period.     The  consciousness  on  the  part  of  the  child  of  objects  external  to 

itself,  constitutes  perception.     This  is  very  soon  followed  by 
ment^    conception,  which  consists  in  taking  from  the  object  perceived  a 

mental  picture  capable  of  reproduction  at  pleasure,  in  the  absence 
of  the  original.  This  latter  may  be  called  the  first  act  of  the  imagination  — 
the  storing  of  the  mind  with  materials  for  future  use.  Simultaneously  witli 
this,  or  only  shortly  after,  occurs  the  naming  of  these  materials  —  the 
association  of  thoughts  with  words,  with  a  view  to  their  expression  aa 
language.  (See  I.\TEi,LECTUAr.  Edccatiox.)  Thus  far,  the  action  of  the 
imagination  depends  upon  the  perception  of  actual  objects.  It  now  remains 
for  the  imagination  to  use  the  materials  already  provided,  by  discarding 
the  actual  object,  and  forming,  partly  by  the  aid  of  words  as  symbols  of 
general  ideas,  an  ideal  picture;  or,  independently  of  words,  and  by  its  own 
act,  creating  for  itself  scenes  and  images  not  less  vivid  than  their  tangible 
representatives.  The  work  of  the  imagination,  therefore,  is  complementary 
to  that  of  observation.  The  order  is,  (1)  perception,  (2)  conception,  (3) 
imagination.  The  action  of  the  latter  is  presu[)posed  by  that  of  the  two 
former.  Knowledge  alone  —  the  mere  storing  of  the  mind  with  facts  and 
conceptions  —  would  be  of  little  value  without  the  vivifying  power  of 
imagination.  Its  function  is  to  lift  the  mind  from  the  contemplation  of 
the  actual,  and  carry  it  beyond  the  field  of  mere  observation,  into  those 
ideal  regions  where  the  tangible  has  no  existence,  or  where  Hs  existence 
cannot  be  actually  verified. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  faculty  of  imagination,,  .several  methods  are 


IMAGINATION  175 

open  to  the  teacher,  the  most  common  of  which  are  pictures,  oral  narratives, 
and  reading,  or  combinations  of  these.  In  all,  the  attention  is  the  prin- 
cipal object  to  be  secured;  since  thus  only  can  a  vivid  mental  pic- 
Methoas.  ^yj,g  j^g  formed,  and  any  other  is  worse  than  useless.  The  picture 
is,  of  course,  the  surest  instrument  for  accomplishing  this  result,  since  it  is 
a  direct  appeal  to  the  eye  —  the  earliest  and  most  powerful  agent  by  which 
knowledge  is  obtained.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  the  picture  should 
be  clearly  drawn  or  painted,  and  in  as  simple  or  elementary  a  form  as  is 
consistent  with  the  idea  of  completeness.  A  few  salient  features,  therefore, 
are  all  that  are  necessary  for  this  purpose;  since  fine  gradations  of  color  or 
shading  can  be  observed  only  at  the  expense  of  the  general  impression.  In 
oral  narrative,  the  degree  to  which  the  clearness  of  the  general  impression 
is  produced,  depends  entirely  upon  the  teacher.  A  warm,  sympathetic 
nature  is  here  the  only  qualification.  By  it  he  is  enabled  to  place  himself 
on  the  pupil's  level,  to  enter  into  his  thoughts,  and  by  the  use  of  figures 
and  illustrations  familiar  to  youthful  minds,  to  produce  a  correct  and 
precise  mental  image.  Any  other  disposition  than  this  is  a  decided  dis- 
qualification for  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination  by  this  method.  Where 
the  picture  and  the  oral  narrative  are  used  together,  the  former  should  not 
be  exhibited  till  after  the  description.  It  should  then  be  produced  to  re- 
inforce the  description  and  give  it  greater  clearness;  but,  if  it  is  exhibited 
before  that  time,  the  attention  is  drawn  to  it  at  once,  to  the  neglect  of  the 
narrative.  Pictures  which  are  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  illustration, 
should,  if  possible,  be  new  to  the  pupU  in  order  to  produce  their  best  effect. 
Of  the  methods  mentioned,  however,  for  the  cultivation  of  the  imaginative 
faculty,  reading  is  not  only  the  most  common,  but  is,  in  most  cases,  in- 
dispensable. The  requisites  in  this  case,  however,  are  stiU  the  same.  The 
object  being  always  to  fix  the  attention  as  powerfully  as  possible  upon  a 
mental  picture,  the  style  should  be  simple  and  clear,  but  graphic  and 
forcible,  abounding  in  concrete  terms,  not  in  abstract  phrases,  and  appealing 
to  the  experience  of  the  pupU,  and  awakening  his  sympathies.  An  ex- 
cellent test  of  the  clearness  of  the  mental  picture  formed  is  that  of 
recalling  at  the  end  of  the  reading,  the  scenes,  incidents,  and  actors  in  the 
order  of  their  introduction  or  occurrence.  Almost  every  branch  pursued 
in  the  ordinary  school  or  college  course  affords  some  opportunity  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  imaginative  faculty,  but  special  fields  for  its  most  active 
exercise  are  found  in  geography,  history,  and  poetry.  Even  in  the  teaching 
of  subjects  usually  considered  dry  and  uninteresting,  there  is  field  for  the 
exercise  of  this  faculty.  Grammar,  mathematics,  political  economy,  and 
logic,  if  illustrated  by  a  teacher  of  active  fancy,  can  be  freed,  in  large 
measure,  from  the  abstract  nature  which  is  supposed  to  be  essential  to 
them,  and  which  renders  them  ordinarily  so  uninviting.  In  regard  to  the 
use  of  fiction  as  an  agent  in  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination,  much  dis- 
cussion has  arisen,  the  objection  usually  urged  being  that  its  effect  is  to 
stimulate  this  faculty  unduly.  This  is  probably  true  of  one  class  only; 
namely,  those  in  whose  minds  the  imaginative  faculty  exists  by  nature  in 
an  abnormal  degree.  Where  this  powder  is  deficient,  it  will  hardly  be  said 
that  the  perusal  of  works  of  fiction  can  do  more  than  do  develop  the  faculty, 
so  as  to  bring  it  into  proportion  with  the  other  mental  powers;  while  the 
probability  is,  that  the  result  will  fall  short  of  this.  In  the  remaining  class, 


176  IMITATION 

those  in  whom  this  faculty  exists  in  a  normal  proportion,  the  evil  result  of 
stimulation  produced  by  Ibo  reading  of  \York3  of  liction,  has,  perhaps,  been 
overrated.  The  reading  alone  can  only  serve  to  fill  the  niiud  with  high 
ideals  —  the  harm  resulting  has  probably  been  produced  by  neglecting  to 
provide  the  necessary  means  or  occasions  for  an  active  exercise  of  the  high 
and  generous  sentiments  and  resolves  thus  aroused.  If  we  read  continually 
of  suffering,  but  never  give  alms,  habit  soon  causes  us  to  accomodate  our- 
selves to  this  condition  as  the  natural  one,  and  the  mental  excitement 
ceases  to  seek  any  outward,  active  expression. 

"All  mere  drudgery",  says  James  Freeman  Clarke,  in  Self -Culture 
(Boston,  1880),  "tends  to  stupefy  tlie  imagination.  And  all  work  is  drudg- 
ery which  is  done  mechanically,  —  with  the  hand  and  not  with  the  mind; 
when  we  are  not  trying  to  do  our  work  as  well  as  possible,  but  only  as  well 
as  necessary.  Such  work  stupefies  the  ideal  faculty,  quenches  the  sense  of 
beauty".     This  is  a  truth  of  great  practical  signiticance  to  the  teacher. 

IQHTATION".  The  possession  of  this  important  faculty,  and  the 
desire  to  exercise  it,  constitute  two  essential  elements  of  all  human  progress. 
From  childhood  to  maturity,  and  even  beyond  —  as  long,  indeed, 
Office.  gg  |.j^g  effort  at  self-improvement  is  kept  up  —  a  vast  majority  of 
the  human  race  are  employed  merely  in  imitating  the  models  that  have 
been  set  up  by  individual  genius,  or  by  the  accumulated  wisdom  and  taste 
of  ages;  and  their  success  in  life  is  greater  or  less,  according  to  the  accuracy 
of  their  imitation.  Especially  during  childhood  and  youth,  is  this  faculty 
brought  into  active  play.  It  is  the  necessary  accompaniment  and  basis  of 
instruction,  the  stepping  stone  to  all  excellence.  Being  of  so  great  im- 
portance, therefore,  in  nearly  every  department  of  education,  it  should 
.  receive  the  special  attention  of  the  teacher.  — The  conditions  of 
ofmccess^^^^^^  ii.  imitation  are  chiefly  two:  (1)  accurate  observation, 
and  (2)  a  retentive  memory.  Probably  few  have  noticed  how 
slightly  the  faculty  of  observation  is  usually  exercised.  This,  however,  may 
be  easily  illustrated.  Of  twenty  persons  listening  to  a  speaker  whose  voice 
has  some  peculiar  tone  or  inflection,  it  will  probably  be  found  that  only 
half  a  dozen  or  perhaps  even  less  will  notice  it,  unless  it  is  very  marked; 
and  of  these,  only  two  or  three  will  be  able  to  reproduce  it  with  any  degree 
of  accuracy.  How  often  do  men  differ  as  to  the  form  or  color  of  some 
feature  in  the  face  of  an  acquaintance !  For  example,  let  a  draughtsman, 
whose  attention  has  not  previously  been  specially  called  to  the  object,  be 
asked  to  draw  a  rosedeaf.  The  probability  is,  that  he  will  confess  his  in- 
ability to  do  so  though  he  would  recognize  a  rose  bush  without  difficulty. 
Instances  might  be  multiplied  of  the  loose,  general  way  in  which  this  faculty 
is  used,  the  result  of  which  is,  that  only  an  indefinite  impression  is  left  on 
the  mind,  instead  of  an  accurate  picture.  (See  Attention'.)  If  it  be 
granted  then,  that  mere  imitation,  when  uncultivated,  cannot  be  depended 
on,  it  will  probably  not  be  denied  that  a  good  memory,  and,  in  most  cases, 
a  certain  degree  of  mechanical  skill,  is  necessary,  when  it  is  cultivated,  to 
produce  the  best  results. 

It  only  remains,  ther.fore.  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  studies  and  pursuits 

in  which  imitation  is  the  chief  instrument,  and  to  indicate  some  of  the 

Field  of   Diethods  by  which  it  may  be  made  most  efficient.     Among  the 

actioity.    first,  may  be  enumerated  writing,  map-drawing,  as  now  generally 


IXCENTIYES  —  IXDUSTKIAL   SCHOOL  ITT 

used  in  teaching  geography,  and  nearly  all  the  arts;  among  them,  draw- 
inof,  with  all  the  professions  that  immediately  depend  upon  it,  as  sur- 
veying, civil  engineering,  mechanics,  architecture,  together  with  all  the 
natural  sciences  in  the  teaching  of  which,  sensible  objects  are  to  be  repre- 
sented. In  learning  to  speak  a  foreign  language,  also,  a  direct  appeal  is 
made  to  the  faculty  of  imitation.  Among  the  methods  used  for  producing 
efficiency  in  imitation,  the  kindergarten  system  is  of  great  value  for  insur- 
ing steadiness  of  hand  and  accuracy  of  eye.  (See  Kixdergartex.)  The 
usual  school  exercises  of  reading,  declamation,  dialogues,  etc.,  are  more  or 
less  successful,  according  to  the  closeness  with  wdiich  the  feelings  and  ex- 
pressions of  imaginary  persons  are  imitated. 

INCENTIVES,  School,  consist  of  rewards  of  various  kinds,  offered 
to  pupils  for  progress  in  study  and  good  behavior;  such  as  "  good  tickets"', 
certificates  of  merit,  books,  and  other  things  awarded  as  premiums  for  ex- 
cellence either  in  proficiency  or  conduct.  Besides  these,  various  expedients 
are  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  exciting  emulation,  which  are  also  to  be 
classed  among  school  incentives;  such  as  giving  public  praise,  awarding 
merit  marks,  putting  the  names  of  meriturious  pupils  upon  a  7-0//  oflionor, 
suitably  embellished  and  framed,  and  hung  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  the 
school  room.  Daily  or  weekly  reports  to  parents  showing  the  number 
of  merit  marks  received  by  the  pupil,  as  compared  with  the  full  number, 
and  thus  exhibiting  the  standing  of  the  pupil,  are  very  generally  used  by 
teachers  as  an  incentive.  The  dismissal  of  pupils  from  school  previous  to 
the  usual  time  is  also  to  be  placed  among  the  same  class  of  incentives.  To 
this,  however,  strong  objection  has  been  made,  inasmuch  as  it  seems  to 
imply  that  attendaiYce  at  school  is  burdensome  and  grievous,  whereas  it 
should  be  made  pleasant  and  attractive;  but  the  efficacy  of  this  incentive,  as 
every  teacher  knows,  is  very  great,  because  it  appeals  to  the  natural  activity 
of  the  child,  upon  which  the  confinement  of  school  cannot  but  operate  as 
a  restraint,  however  well  it  may  be  administered;  and  experience  has 
demonstrated  that  an  occasional  relief  from  this  confinement  does  not,  on 
the  whole,  weaken  the  pupil's  attachment  to  school.  All  such  incentives, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  are  of  a  secondary  nature;  and  the  educator 
should  always  exercise  care  that  their  influence  should  not  be  so  exerted  as 
to  impair  the  force  of  higher  and  more  enduring  motives  to  good  conduct. 
(See  Kewards.) 

INDUCTIVE  METHOD,  in  education,  is  but  another  name  for  the 
developing  viethod  (q.  v.).  It  is  so  called  because  it  is  based  upon  the 
principle  of  logical  induction,  or  the  process  of  deriving  general  principles 
from  an  observation  and  comparison  of  individual  facts.  Instead  of  teach- 
ing definitions,  principles,  and  rules  arbitrarily,  and  illustrating  them  by 
facts,  the  teacher  who  uses  the  -inductive  method,  calls  the  attention  of  the 
pupil  to  a  sufficient  number  of  the  facts  to  enable  him  to  find  the  principle 
or  rule  for  himself.  The  learning  of  the  definition,  which,  in  the  deductive 
method,  is  the  first  thing  to  be  done,  in  the  inductive  method,  is  the  last 
step  in  the  process.  Most  text-books  follow  the  deductive  method,  but 
the  most  effective  elementary  instruction  is  inductive. 

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL.  The  term  industrial  educatimi  is  used 
to  designate  the  training  of  pupils,  not  only  in  the  common  branches  of 
instruction,  but  in  certain  industrial  or  business  pursuits.     An  industrial 


178  IXSTKUCTIOX 

school,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  denotes  any  school  for  teaching  one 
or  several  branches  of  industry;  but  the  special  schools  of  this  kind,  and, 
in  particular,  those  of  a  higher  grade,  are  more  generally  comprised  under 
the  name  of  technical  schools;  and  the  name  industrial  school  is  usually 
restricted  to  a  school  for  neglected  children,  in  which  training  in  manual 
labor  or  industrial  pursuits  constitutes  a  prominent  feature  of  the  plan  of 
education.  The  common  schools,  however,  sometimes  have  classes,  in  wliich 
children  are  instructed  in  certain  industrial  pursuits. 

INSTRUCTION  (Lat.    inslrudio)  is  the  communication  of  knowl- 
edge.    Education  trains  the  powers  of  the  individual,  in  order  that  he 

may  attain  to  the  perfection  of  his  being;  instruction  supplies 
Special  ^^^^^  with  something  that  is  objective  or  external.  Instruction 
ojfice.  ^^  specially  to  do  with  the  intellectual  development  of  the 
child,  and  is  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  educator,  which  he  can 
wield  with  the  greatest  precision  and  in  the  most  skillful  manner.  He  may 
attempt  to  act  on  the  feelings  and  the  volitions;  but  so  obscure  are  the 
operations  of  the  soul  in  these  regions,  that  he  may  produce  exactly  the 
opposite  effect  to  that  which  he  intended.  15ut  when  he  communicates 
knowledge,  he  knows  that,  if  the  pupil  is  capable  and  attentive,  he  will  re- 
ceive exactly  that  which  it  is  intended  he  should  receive.  Moreover, 
knowledge  stands  in  close  relation  to  the  feelings  and  volitions;  and,  ac- 
cordingly, the  teacher  employs  it  for  the  purpose  of  influencing  and  direct- 
ing these.  Thus,  it  comes  to  jiass  that  instruction  occupies  the  largest 
part  in  the  work  of  education,  and  constitutes  that  portion  which  can  be 
undertaken  and  provided  for  by  a  community,  since  it  can  be  delegated  by 
a  parent  to  a  regularly  trained  teacher  with  the  best  results.  Instruction 
is  putting  something  into  the  mind;  education  is  strengthening  and  devel- 
oping the  powers  of  the  mind.  It  is  plain  that  a  teacher  should  put  noth- 
ing into  the  mind  which  does  not  train  and  develop  its  powers;  but  as  it 

is  possible  to  do  so,  and  as  this  frequently  takes  place,  instruc- 
Divisions.  ^j^^^  j^  ^^  -^^  divided  into  educative  and  non-educative;  and  one 
of  the  most  important  questions  which  a  teacher  can  investigate,  is  the 
nature  of  educative  instruction.  There  are  three  qualities  which  attach  to 
all  educative  instruction:  (1)  Instruction,  to  be  educative,  must  follow 
the  natural  laws  of  the  intellectual  development  of  man.  Man's  intellectual 

life  begins  in  the  exercise  of  the  senses.    lie  accumulates  a  large 

Intellectual  number  of  individual  ob.'^ervations.     In  these  observations,  like 

^^^'^nt  gathers  to  like.     A  child  looks  at  a  tree;  and  the  tree  produces 

an  impression  on  his  mind.  The  next  day,  he  sees  another  tree; 
and  the  resemblances  in  this  tree  strike  his  mind,  and  recall  the  former 
impression.  The  two  impressions  thus  unite,  and  form  a  stronger  impres- 
sion than  cither  separately.  Other  impressions  of  a  similar  nature  unite, 
until  the  child  forms  a  definite  notion  of  a  tree.  The  child  is  thus  gather- 
ing into  unities  the  various  impressions  which  he  is  continually  forming; 
and  this  process  ('outinues.  lie  learns  the  individual  first,  and  groups  his 
observations.  Thus  instruction,  to  be  educative,  must  always  proceed  from 
the  individual  to  the  general,  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  There  is 
no  rever-sal  of  this  process  in  education;  but  the  process  is  often  reversed 
in  instruction  with  baneful  effect.  To  the  teacher,  the  general  truth  con- 
tains the  sum  of  all  the  particulars,  and  he  thinks  he  gives  to  the  child  this 


INSTRUCTION  179 

general  truth  •with  all  its  contents,  "when  he  urges  it  upon  him,  makes  him 
commit  it  to  memory,  and  frequently  recalls  it  to  his  mind;  but  the  fact 
is,  that  the  child  learns  the  general  truth  without  the  contents.  Pie  has 
the  shell  without  the  kernel.  The  result  is,  either  that  the  truth  lies  dor- 
mant until  experience  gives  him  the  particulars,  and  he  may  then  recall  the 
truth,  or  that  the  child  is  luUed  into  the  belief  that  he  has  learned  some- 
thing when  he  really  knows  nothing,  and  his  mind  is  prevented  from  step- 
ping forward  in  that  direction,  by  the  belief  that  he  knows  the  truth  already. 
Furthermore,  this  non-educative  instruction  loses  a  great  opportunity.  If 
the  child  is  allowed  time,  and  is  supplied  with  a  sufficient  number  of  indi- 
vidual instances,  he  is  sure  to  make  the  generalization  himself.  Nothing 
imprints  the  truth  more  permanently  than  the  discovery  of  it  for  himself, 
and  nothing  brings  into  play  all  the  powers  of  the  soul  more  healthily  than 
the  discovery  of  a  truth.  The  teacher  must,  therefore,  always  proceed  from 
the  concrete  to  the  abstract;  but,  in  employing  this  method,  he  must  exer- 
cise very  great  patience.  Generalization  is  a  slow  process,  somewhat  un- 
certain in  time.  The  child  seems  to  be  just  reaching  the  truth,  but  he 
turns  away  with  a  bound,  and  he  may  take  some  time  more  to  master  it 
completely.  Or  he  may,  one  day,  have  a  glimpse  of  it,  and  the  next,  it 
has  vanished.  But,  however  slow  or  uncertain  the  process  may  be,  it  is 
the  only  truly  educative  mode  of  giving  instruction.  The  teacher,  like 
Socrates,  is  a  maieutic  artist,  and  he  must  watch  carefully  over  the  birth 
of  a  truth,  not  forcing  nature,  but  giving  nature  every  help  that  she  will 
willingly  receive.  (2)  Educative  instruction  arrests  the  atten- 
Attention  tion  and  awakens  the  interest  of  the  pupil.  The  rule  implied 
vUei-est  ^^  ^^^  statement  may  be  expressed  in  the  words,  that  the 
teacher  must  attach  the  new  matter  to  the  old  by  a  natural  con- 
nection, that  he  must  pass  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  subject 
of  attention  is  one  that  cannot  be  discussed  here.  We  can  note  only  how 
it  is  to  be  secured.  The  pupil  must  be  on  good  terms  with  his  teacher. 
Where  there  is  antagonism,  there  can  be  no  satisfactory  attention.  The 
pupil  may,  indeed,  attend  through  fear;  but  fear  is  a  weakening  force;  and 
the  result  is,  to  associate  in  his  mind  with  the  subject  comprehended  feel- 
ings of  dislike  and  disgust,  so  that  at  the  end  there  is  no  interest  in  the 
subject,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  wish  that  he  may  never  have  to  do  with  it 
again.  TheU;  the  teacher  must  carefully  consider  the  state  of  the  pupil's 
mind,  when  he  commences.  Probably,  he  has  come  from  the  play-ground. 
His  mind  is  occupied  with  some  occurrence  that  has  taken  place  there,  and 
his  mind  will  remain  occupied  with  it  the  whole  hour,  if  the  teacher  does 
not  employ  means  to  displace  it.  Some  little  time  should  be  given  to  the 
pupil  to  calm  down;  and  then,  when  he  is  prepared  to  listen,  the  teacher 
should  start  with  something  that  the  pupil  knows  well  and  feels  an  interest 
in,  and  from  that  gradually  work  his  way  to  the  new  matter  which  he  has 
to  communicate.  The  result  of  his  teaching  should  be,  that  the  child  has 
a  stronger  interest  in  the  subject  than  he  had  before.  To  rouse  this 
interest,  the  teacher  has  to  remember  that  every  intellectual  activity  is 
closely  connected  with  corresponding  feelings  and  exertions,  and  the 
teacher  succeeds  when  he  makes  his  intellectual  propositions  awaken  the 
appropriate  feelings  and  exertions.  (3)  Educative  instruction  always  keeps 
in  view  the  principal  aim  and  end  of  education.    It  always  works  for 


180  INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 

a  purpose.  The  object  is  not  to  cram  the  pupil  with  a  certain  amount 
of  knowledge,  to  give  him  an  hour's  dose  of  information,  without  regard 
to  his  whole  being.  It  deliberately  asks  whether  the  information  wliich 
is  to  ba  imparted,  will  tit  into  the  harmonious  development  of  the  child's 
powers.  It  will,  therefore,  proportion  the  amount  given  to  the  healthy 
evolution  of  the  child's  nature.  It  will  not  look  to  the  greatest  success  in 
the  particular  department,  but  to  the  greatest  success  compatible  with  the 
healthy  action  of  all  the  child's  powers.  ♦ 

It   is   not   necessary,  in  an    article   like  this,  to  go  furtlier  into  the 

questions  to  which  the  subject  of  instruction  gives  rise.     They  are  treated 

in  separate    articles.     We  may,  however,  take  a  general  view 

iSrucUon^^  them:     (1)  We  should  have  to  treat  of  the  subjects  of  in- 

'struction.  These  may  be  divided  into  those  that  relate  to 
nature,  those  that  relate  to  man,  and  those  that  relate  to  God.  The 
first  gives  us  the  natural  sciences,  —  a  knowledge  of  the  earth  in  its 
present  state,  geology,  botany,  zoology,  physics,  including  astronomy  and 
chemistry.  Then  come  the  abstract  subjects  arising  out  of  these:  the 
science  of  numbers  and  of  magnitule,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry. 
Ne.Kt  follows  the  knowledge  that  relates  to  man:  physiology,  psychology, 
and  sociology;  but  the  latter  sciences  cannot  be  taught  scientifically  to 
children.  The  main  facts  are  made  known  concretely  in  literature,  and 
therefore  the  pupil  learns  languages,  —  his  own,  modern  languages,  and 
ancient  languages.  Eiucation  insists  that  these  should  ultimately,  and 
as  soon  as  possible,  pass  from  being  mere  studies  of  words  to  be  a  means 
of  acquainting  the  pupil  with  the  feelings,  thoughts,  and  desires  of  great 
and  good  men,  past  and  present.  Closely  connected  with  languages  is 
the  study  of  history;  and  alHed  to  history  and  intermediate  between  the 
first  and  second  classes  of  study,  is  geography,  —  a  knowledge  of  the 
earth  as  it  has  influenced  man  and  bjen  used  by  him.  The  third  class 
of  subjects  relate  to  religion;  but  this  is  closely  allied  to  the  second,, 
and,  indeed,  falls  properly  under  it;  for  it  is  the  knowledge  of  man's 
relations  to  God.  (2)  We  should  have  to  inquire  into  the  educative 
value  of  all  these  stuJies,  but  this  inquiry  belongs  to  the  special  articles. 
Here  it  has  to  be  remarked,  that  none  of  the  subjects  must  be  entirely 
omitted.  The  mind  of  man  must  not  be  deliberately  made  one-sided. 
The  multiplication  of  interest  is  one  of  the  great  objects  of  education. 
(3)  We  should  have  to  inquire  into  the  methods  of  education;  and  (4)  into 
the  organization,  private  and  public,  neces5-;ary  to  render  instruction  effec- 
tive. All  these  subjects  are  discussed  in  the  ordinary  manuals  on  in- 
struction. 

ICrrELLECTUAL  EDUCATION.  The  term  in/'^nect  (Latin,  in- 
telledus,  irom  int'r,  between,  and  ler/ere,  to  gather,  or  collect)  is  used  to 
denote  the  faculty  or  faculties  by  which  man  knnirs,  in  distinction  from 

those  of  se/i^ibili/i/  and  ifiU.  In  the  formation  of  the  human 
CMure  character,  the  culture  of  the  intellect  is  of  subordinate  impor- 
inleUect    **"^®  *^  *''^*  ^^  ^^^^  other  two  mental  functions,  —  the  proper 

order  in  this  regard  being  (1)  will,  (2)  sensibility,  (3)  intellect; 
for  the  intellect  is  only  an  instrument,  the  use  of  which  must  depend  upon 
the  natural  strength  and  educational  training  of  the  other  elements  of 
human  character.     There  is,  however,  without  doubt,  a  reflex  action  of 


INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION  181 

sound  intellectual  culture,  by  means  of  which  the  propensities  and  tastes 
of  an  individual  are  ennobled,  and  his  moral  sense  strengthened.  In  order 
to  direct  the  education  of  the  intellect,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  its 
operations  and  the  mode  of  its  growth  from  infancy  to  mature  age;  the 
processes  by  which  its  powers  may  be  guided,  stimulated,  and  improved, 
and  the  ao-eucies  by  means  of  which  this  improvement,  or  culture,  is  to  be 

effected.  The  human  mind  acts,  as  it  were,  by  separate  faculties; 
Faculties.  -^  appears  to  possess  distinct  ])Owers.  "J  hese  faculties,  or  powers, 
are  without  doubt,  intimately  associated.  'J  hey  are  but  functions  of  a 
single  agent;  but  they  are  functions  distinct,  both  in  their  mode  of  opera- 
tion and  in  the  objects  upon  Avhich  they  are  exercised.  To  form  an 
idea  from  a  present  object  of  sensation  is  obviously  distinct  from  re- 
calling that  idea  when  the  object  is  no  longer  present.  '1  his  again  differs 
essentially  from  the  suggestion  of  one  idea  by  the  presence  of  another 
in  some  w;iy  associated  with  it.  Again,  to  create  from  the  simple  im- 
pressions derived  from  natural  objects  an  original  picture,  or  series  of 
pictures,  such  as  those  of  Hogarth  on  canvas,  or  of  Eunyan,  in  written 
composition,  is  certainly  a  very  different  process  from  the  selection  and 
combination  of  elementary  propositions  so  as  to  derive  from  them  an 
original  principle,  or  truth.  'I he  mind  is,  nevertheless,  a  unit;  and  all 
its  operations,  of  however  diverse  a  character,  may  be  conceived  to  depend, 
directly  or  indirectly,  upon  some  rudimental  process;  but  nothing  would 
be  gained  practically  by  such  a  procedure;  and,  therefore,  we  may  prop- 
erly conform  to  the  commou  usage  in  this  regard,  and  consider  the 
intellect  as  comprehending  many  distinct  faculties,  which,  of  course, 
cannot  be  cultivated  and  strengthened  by  the  teacher  without  a  suf- 
ficient knowledge  of  their  respective  spheres  of  action,  their  modes  of 
operation,  and  the  objects  upon  which  they  are  specially  exercised.  These 
have  been  conveniently  classified  and  designated  as  follows:  (1)  'J  he 
acquisitive  faculties,  including  consciousness  and  sense  perception;  (2) 
The  repres>^:nt(itive  faculties,  including  concejjtion,  association,  memory, 
and  imagination;  (3)  1"he  elaborative  faculties,  including  comparison, 
abstraction,  generalization,  judgment,  and  reason. 

The  senses,  those  avenues  of  communication  with  the  external  world, 
are   first  to  be  considered,  since    probably    ideas   at  first  spring    from 

sensation,  which  appears  to  be  the  primitive  stimulus  of  activity 
Sensation.  ^^  ^j^g  whole  animal  kingdom,  (h^ee  Sensks.)  It  is,  however, 
in  no  other  way  connected  with  the  mind  than  as  the  means  of  supply- 
ing the  material  upon  which  the  first  mental  operations  are  performed; 
and  when  this  material  is  afforded,  the  mind  as  an  entirely  independent 
agent  may  or  may  not  act  upon  it,  this  act  being  controlled  by  what 
is"  called  attention  (q.  v.),  which  is  only  a  condition  of  activity  assumed 
by  the  mind  in  regard  to  any  of  the  objects  of  sensation  or  consciousness. 

When  sensation  and  attention  exist  simultaneously,  there  must 
Perception,  j-gg^j^  what  is  called  perception,  sensation  being  simply  the 
effect  produced  by  external  objects  upon  the  bodily  orgar.s,  and  percep- 
tion the  act  of  the  mind  in  becoming  cognizant  of  it  as  proceeiling  trom 
some  cause  extraneous  to  itself.  "J'he  product  of  these  two  acts,  constitut- 
ing what  is  called  sense-perception,  would  be  only  momentary,  or  would 
last  only  during  the  presence  of  the  object  perceived,  but  for  the  existence 


182  INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 

of  a  faculty  by  which  the  mind  retains  impressions  thus  made,  recalls 
thera  voluntarily  or  involuntarily,  and  thus  is  enabled  to  make  them  the 
subject  of  independent  mental  action.  These  impressions,  and  in  an  especial 
manner  those  made  through  the  medium  of  sight,  become  in  this  way  a 
part  of  the  mind;  they  are  imprinted  upon  its  very  texture,  as  it  wero,  like 
pictures  upon  the  photographic  glass.     Hence  the  name  ideas  (from  the 
Greek  word  Idelv,  to  see).     This   faculty  is   called  conception 
Conception,  ^^^y  It  requires  the  most  careful  cultivation  in  childhood  and 
youth;  since  it  alone  enables  the  mind  to  store  up  the  materials  of  knowl- 
edge and  thought  in  its  wonderful  and  mysterious  repository.  The  intellect 
of  childhood  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  exercise  of  it  —  in  storing  up  ideas, 
and  gathering  materials  out  of  which  to  produce  its  subsequent  creations, 
whether  these  are  the  fantastic  pictures  of  fancy,  the  more  regular  combi- 
nations of  imagination,  or  the   sequences   of  ratiocination.     Whatever, 
therefore,  hinders  this  process,  shrivels  the  mind  and  stunts  its  growth. 
Its  vitality  dies  out  for  want  of  exercise,  and  torpor  takes  the  place  of 
elasticity  and  vigorous  life.     This  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  first  faculties  to 
be  addressed  in  education.     Its  activity  is  to  be  fostered  by  supplying  it 
with  abundant  food  —  objects  on  which  it  may  be  exei'cised,  and  language 
designed  to  bring  into  clear  mental  view  the  conceptions  already  acquired. — 
The  next  mental  process  to  be  considered  is  assuciation.    In  the 
Associa-    ^^^  stages  of  the  mind's  growth,  there  exists  but  little  power  of 
combination,  certainly  none  of  logical  combination;  but  there  is 
an  elementary  principle  of  intellection  by  which  ideas  tend  to  become  linked 
together  according  to  certain  relations;  this  is  called  association  (q.  v.). 
Perhaps,  the  most  important  of  the  elementary  associations  established  in 
regard  to  the  conceptions  is  that  of  words  or  names  with  the  conceptions 
of  objects  which  they  are  thus  made  to  represent.     This  is,  without  doubt, 
one  of  the  earliest,  as  weU  as  one  of  the  most  rudiraental,  of  the  mind's 
combinations.     The  association  itself,  it  must  be  borne  in  nund,  is  all  that 
is  arbitrary;  since  it  is  not  words  themselves  that  are  associated  with  the 
conceptions  of  the  objects,  but  conceptions  of  tlie  spoken  words,  formed 
through  the  medium  of  hearing.     Wliat  is  meant  by  asserting  that  the 
association  alone  is  arbitrary,  is  that  the  spoken  word,  as  an  actual  sense- 
perception,  is  retained  and   recalled  by  conception,  and  is,  therefore,  no 
more  arbitrary  than  any  other  idea;  but  having  no  intrinsic  relation  to  the 
conception  for  which  it  is  to  stand,  it  is  associated  with  it  arbitrarily,  that 
is,  by  repeatedly  bringing  the  two  conceptions  together,  in  accordance  with 
that  law  of  mental  action  by  which  ideas  repeatedly  brought  into  connec- 
tion suggest  each  other. 

Without  the  association  of  words  with  ideas,  the  mind  could  advance 
but  a  very  few  steps  in  its  development;  because,  (1)  it  would  be  unable  to 
receive  any  stimulus  by  conununicating  with  any  other  minds; 
Language.  ^-2^  -j.  ^yQyjj  j^g  puwerless  to  control  the  order  in  wliich  the 
conceptions  would  present  themselves  to  the  mind,  or  to  divest  them  of  the 
vagueness  of  revcry  or  dreatuing;  and  (3)  no  process  of  thought  or  reason- 
ing could  be  carried  on  without  the  assistance  of  language.  'J'his  need  of 
words  is  illustrated  by  the  efforts  of  children  to  talk,  and  call  things  by 
names,  long  before  the  power  of  articulation  exists,  thus  showing  that, 
although  they  are  unable  to  eniploy  words  for  the  expression  of  ideas,  the 


INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION  183 

mind  is  constantly  making  use  of  them  in  carrying  on  its  rudimental  oper- 
ations. —  It  is  an  important  law  that  conceptions  are  more  strongly 
associated  when  their  corresponding  perceptions  have  been  associated. 
Thus,  suppose  it  is  desired  to  teach  a  child  the  meaning  of  the  word  sliiiy; 
in  other  words,  to  associate  in  his  mind  the  spoken  word  ship  with  the 
conception  of  the  ship,  so  that  the  one  will  always  suggest  the  other.  If 
he  has  never  seen  a  ship,  nothing  but  the  actual  perception  will  suffice,  and 
he  must  be  taken  where  one  may  be  actually  seen;  but  if  he  has  seen  the 
object  without  learning  its  name,  the  conception  may  be  recalled  to  his 
mind  either  by  questioning  him  or  by  showing  him  a  picture  of  it.  Without 
doing  this,  the  word  sliip  may  be  repeated  to  him,  and  he  may  pronounce 
it  any  number  of  times,  without  learning  any  thing,  since  it  would  be 
presenting  to  his  mind  a  sign  without  showing  what  it  signifies.  In 
elementary  instruction,  this  error  is  quite  often  committed. 

It  is  important  to  consider  upon  what  fundamental  or  primary  notion 
the  mind  proceeds  in  establishing  the  arbitrary  association  bet^^•een  things 
and  their  names;  that  is,  between  conceptions  which  intrinsically 
Things  and  j_^^^.g  ^^  relation  to  each  other.  A  slight  observation  will  as- 
names.  ^^^.^^^^^  ^Ymt  the  mind  very  early  requires  the  notion  of  names 
as  representatives  of  things,  and  thus  comprehends  the  relation  existing 
between  a  sign  and  the  iking  signified;  not  that  this  notion  is  made  an 
object  of  actual  consciousness  or  reflection,  but  that  it  is  intuitively  recog- 
nized by  the  mind,  and  is  practically  employed  by  the  child  in  making  known 
its  wants  or  expressing  its  feelings.  The  question,  "  What  is  it  ?"  so  often 
heard  from  the  lips  of  a  young  child  on  seeing  a  new  object,  appears  gen- 
erally to  have  reference  only  to  this  notion.  The  child  perceives  the  need 
of  affixing  a  name  to  the  object  in  order  that  it  may  become  a  definite  con- 
ception, as  well  as  be  prepared  for  expression;  and  when  a  name  is  given, 
however  arbitrary  or  unintelligible,  the  inquiry  proceeds  no  further,  the 
child  appearing  entirely  satisfied.  It  is  only  when  the  mind  has  made 
more  progress  in  development  and  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  other  rela- 
tions, that  this  question  can  possibly  have  any  other  import.  Very  much 
of  the  early  development  of  a  child's  mind  thus  consists  in  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  words,  but,  let  it  be  carefully  observed,  of  words  ouly  as 
representatives  of  actual  conceptions.  In  this  way  the  knowledge  of 
things  and  the  knowledge  of  words,  increase  paH  passw,_  andthe  mind  is 
prepared  for  operations  of  a  more  advanced  character;  since  it  is  only  by 
symbolizing  individual  conceptions  that  generalization  can  take 
General-  pi^ce,  that  is,  that  individuals  can  be  conceived  with  reference 
iza  ion.  g-j.piygjYg]y  ^Q  certain  qualities  which  they  possess  in  common, 
and  thus  be  arranged  in  classes.  This  office  of  language  has  been  ex- 
plained in  the  following  manner  by  a  very  acute  writer  (H.  L.  Mansel) : 
''Intuitive  generalization  consists  in  directing  the  attention,  voluntarily  or 
involuntarily,  to  the  common  features  of  several  objects  presented  to  us, 
neglecting  or  not  perceiving  those  qualities  which  are  peculiar  to  each.  It 
is  not  a  distinct  cognition  of  the  class  as  a  class,  nor  of  the  individuals  as 
individuals;  but  a  confused  perception  of  both  together.  To  form  a 
complete  cognition  of  the  individual.  I  must,  by  the  aid  of  imagination, 
Bupply  those  distinctive  features  which  I  am  unable  clearly  to  perceive. 
To  form  a  complete  cognition  of  the  class,  I  must  separate  the  common 


184  INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 

attributes  from  their  connection  with  a  definite  time  and  place.  But  how 
are  attributes,  apart  from  their  juxtaposition  in  space,  to  be  so  connected 
together,  as  to  constitute  a  single  object '!  The  head  and  trunk  and  limbs 
of  an  individual  man  are  connected  together  by  contiimity  in  space,  and  by 
that  continuity  constitute  a  whole  of  intuition,  whether  distinctly  recog- 
nized in  that  relation  or  not.  How  are  the  attributes  of  mankind  in  general 
to  be  separated  from  their  position  in  space,  and  yet  so  united  together  as 
to  constitute  a  whole  of  thought?  To  effect  this  we  must  call  in  the  aid  of 
language.  The  word  is  to  thought  what  space  is  to  perception.  It  con- 
stitutes the  connecting  link  between  various  attributes  —  the  frame,  as  it 
were,  in  which  they  are  set  —  and  thus  furnishes  the  means  by  whicii  the 
features  characteristic  of  a  class  may  be  viewed  apart  from  the  individuals 
in  which  they  are  intuitively  perceived,  and  combined  into  a  complex  notion 
or  concept".  In  regard  to  the  same  point,  Whately  remarks,  in  Elements 
of  L'jf/ic:  '•  The  majority  of  men  would  probably  say,  if  asked,  that  the 
use  of  language  is  peculiar  to  man;  and  that  its  office  is  to  express  to  one 
another  our  tlioughts  and  feelings.  But  neither  of  these  is  strictly  true. 
Brutes  do  possess,  in  some  degree,  the  power  of  being  taught  to  understand 
what  is  said  to  them,  and  some  of  them  even  to  utter  sounds  expressive  of 
what  is  passing  within  them.  But  they  all  seem  to  bj  incapable  of  another 
very  important  use  of  language  whicli  does  characterize  man;  namely,  the 
employment  of  common  terms  [general  terms;)  formed  by  abstraction,  as 
instruments  of  thnwjh'.;  by  which  alone  a  train  of  reasoning  may  be  carried 
on.  And  accordingly  a  deaf-mute,  before  he  lias  been  taught  a  language 
—  either  the  fingerdanguage  or  reading  —  cannot  carry  on  a  train  of 
reasoning  any  more  than  a  brute,  lie  differs  indeed  from  a  brute,  in 
possessing  the  mental  capability  of  em[)loying  language;  but  he  can  no 
more  make  use  of  that  capability  till  he  is  in  possession  of  some  system  of 
arbitrary  general  signs,  than  a  person  born  blind  from  cataract  can  make 
use  of  his  capacity  of  seeing,  till  the  cataract  is  removed". 

Next  to  the  association  of  things  with  words  as  their  representatives, 
is  that  founded  upon  a  perception  of  resinnhlance  in  the  objects  from  which 
conceptions  are  derived.     This,  it  will  be  perceived  from  what 
Resem-     \y^^  already  been  adduced,  takes  place  prior  to  generalization,  to 
ancUoq!/    "'^"ch  it  directly  leads.     There  is,  i)robably,  no  relation  so  ob- 
vious to  a  child  as  that  of  resemblance  or  analogy,  and  none 
that  affords  so  much  employment  to  its  mind,  or  that  affects  it  with  more 
pleasurable  emotions.     This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  relation  of 
analogy  when  found  to  exist  between  objects  quite  dissimilar.   The  facility 
and  readiness   with   which  very  young  children   discern    resemblances, 
whether  thoy  are    founded   upon   form,  color,   or   structure,  indicate   a 
natural  aptitude  of  the  mind  to  perceive  the  varieties  of  these  qualities 
in  different  objects,  —  of  these  qualities  especially,  becau.se  they  aie  ad- 
dressed to  the  sight,  which  of  all  the  senses  gives  rise  to  the  most  vivid 
conceptions.     The  varieties  of  color  (tints),  form,  etc.,  generally  have  no 
designations  in  the  child's  mind —  no  symbols  in  language;  and,  therefore, 
cannot  bj  made  distinct  objects  of  conception  or  of  consciousness;  and,  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  mental  development,  this  is  not  required  to  enable  the 
mind  to  carry  on  its  rudimental  processes.    Very  young  children  can  learn 
to  classify  objects  with  respect  to  their  resemblances  in  form,  color,  etc.; 


I 


INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION  185 

and  to  require  them  to  do  this,  is  one  of  the  best  exercises  that  can  be  em- 
ployed to  aid  the  development  of  their  minds.  The  readiness  with  which 
children  apply  the  same  name  to  objects  having  only  a  general  resemblance 
to  each  other  in  form,  color,  or  structure,  is  another  proof  of  this  charac- 
teristic of  the  Iiumau  mind.  "Children",  says  Aristotle,  "at  first  call  every 
ma.n  father,  and  every  woman  mother,  but  afterwards  they  distinguish  one 
person  from  another".  The  perception  of  resemblance  is,  thus,  prior  to 
that  of  difference,  and,  apparently,  for  a  very  good  reason ;  since,  if  the  re- 
verse were  the  case,  the  mind,  instead  of  requiring  immediately  words  as 
the  representatives  of  classes,  would  need  a  word  for  every  object  of  per- 
ception, and  thus  could  make  no  advancement  in  developing  the  higher 
faculties.  This  was  the  doctrine  of  Festalozzi,  and  a  basic  principle  of  his 
system.  There  is  no  doubt  that  very  great  diversities  in  objects  excite  the 
attention  more  readily  than  corresponding  resemblances,  just  as  rapid 
transitions  from  one  color  to  another,  from  intense  darkness  to  a  brilliant 
illumination,  etc.,  produce  activity  in  the  perceptive  faculties;  and  hence, 
the  employment  of  such  processes  in  the  education  of  those  mentally  defi- 
cient; but  where  any  two  objects  are  placed  before  a  child,  of  which 
the  points  of  resemblance  and  of  difference  are  ecpially  obvious  to  the 
developed  and  mature  mind,  the  child  will  intuitively  notice  the  former 
before  he  will  the  latter.  The  constitution  of  the  mind  seems  to  neces- 
sitate this.  Objects  which  are  very  unlike  may,  indeed,  have  some  points 
of  resemblance  which  escape  the  notice  of  a  child,  and  which,  therefore, 
the  teacher  will  need  to  point  out  so  as  to  assist  in  their  discovery,  and, 
in  this  way,  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  observation.  The  whole  structure 
of  the  intellect  as  a  thinking  and  reasoning  apparatus  seems  to  be  based 
on  the  ready  recognition  of  likeness  and  analogy  in  the  various  objects 
presented  to  the  senses.  Isaac  Taylor  remarks,  in  Home.  Education:  "The 
sense  of  resemblance  runs  before  the  power  of  discriminating  or  designat- 
ing differences;  hence,  it  happens  that  by  the  infant  and  the  savage  the 
names  of  individuals  are  extended  to  species,  and  the  names  of  species  to 
genera".  "Thus",  as  Mansel  remarks,  "by  the  aid  of  language,  our  first 
abstractions  are,  in  fact,  given  to  us  already  made;  as  we  learn  to  give  the 
same  name  to  various  individuals  presented  to  us  under  slight  and  at  first 
unnoticed  circumstances  of  distinction.  The  name  is  thus  applied  to  dif- 
ferent objects  long  before  we  learn  to  analyze  the  growing  powers  of  speech 
and  thought,  to  ask  what  we  mean  by  each  several  instance  of  its  applica- 
tion, and  to  correct  and  fix  the  significance  of  words  at  first  used  vaguely 

and  obscurely".  The  association  of  the  conceptions  as  dependent 

Intuitive    upon  an  observation  of  resemblance,  has  been  called  iniui/ive 

^^^f^^J''^^' generalization;  since  it  does  not  consciously  follow  any  process 

of  abstraction,  because,  from  the  failure  of  the  undeveloped 
mind  to  notice  distinctions  and  differences,  no  such  process  is  needed  for 
the  purpose.  For  example,  a  child  sees  a  book  for  the  first  time,  and 
learns  its  name,  book;  now,  on  seeii  g  another  book,  however  different  from 
the  first  in  size,  color,  etc.,  he  invariably  applies  to  it  the  term  book,  by  the 
perception  of  analogy  leading  on  to  intuitive  generalization.  Common 
names  are,  therefore,  first  learned,  and  particular  or  proper  names  only 
given  to  such  objects  as  are  constantly  presented  to  the  mind;  since,  by 
being  thus  more  intimately  known,  their  distinctive  peculiarities  are  moi'e 


186  INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 

clearly  discerned,  this  discernment  leading  to  an  iyidividuallzation,  as  the 
next  step  in  the  growth  or  development  of  the  mind.  The  operation 
of  the  sense  of  analogy  is  seen  in  the  use  of  figurative,  or  more  defin- 
itely, tropical  language;  and  its  rudiuiental  character  is  illustrated  by  the 
fact  that  children  and  savages  are  particularly  prone  to  the  use  of  this 
language.  Indeed,  as  before  remarked,  it  is  one  of  the  most  intense 
mental  pleasures  of  the  child  to  trace  analogies  in  objects  of  consider- 
able diversity  in  general  appearance,  and  to  apply  such  metaphorical 
terms  as  will  forcibly  express  them.  This  again  adds  very  greatly  to  a 
child's  power  of  expression,  since,  without  the  perception  of  these  anal- 
ogies in  objects,  every  variation  would  require  some  specific  term,  met- 
aphorical names  ceasing  to  have  any  meaning  whatever.  This  charac- 
teristic of  a  child's  mind  gives  to  the  intelligent  teacher  considerable 
resources  for  illustration,  particularly  in  the  use  of  words  and  their  appli- 
cation to  the  objects  which  they  represent.  Thus,  the  term  aipe  would'  be 
much  better  understood  if  its  exact  literal  import  were  explained,  and  the 
analogy  exhibited  between  the  head  and  a  cape,  or  headland.  It  is  un- 
fortunate that  so  few  compound  or  derivative  words  in  English  are  formed 
from  the  simple  words  of  the  language  itself,  and  that  recourse  has  been  had 
to  so  great  an  extent  to  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  for  a  supply  of  such 
roots;  since,  in  consequence  of  this,  most  of  the  words  of  the  language  are  nec- 
essarily taught  as  arbitrary  terms,  which,  otherwise,  would  bethe  means  of 
stimulating  mental  activity  in  the  learner.  A  striking  contrast  has  very  often 
been  made,  in  this  respect,  between  the  English  and  German  languages, 
such  terms  as  Regenschirm  (umbrella),  Soimeuschirni  (parasol),  Handschuh 
(glove),  Fiiigerhut  (thimble),  ein^awjeii  (absorb),  durclmchtig  (trans- 
parent), etc.,  illustrating  very  clearly  the  fact  referred  to.  'J'his  peculiarity 
of  a  language,  in  drawing  almost  exclusively  from  its  own  primitive  words 
the  materials  for  the  construction  of  complex  epithets,  is  also  very 
prouiinent  in  the  Greek  language,  and  constitutes  one  of  its  excellencies. 
Where  it  exists,  it  must  afford  great  facility  in  education,  and  must  form 
the  ba.sis  for  processes  which  are  impracticable  where  a  language,  such  as 
the  English,  is  to  be  employed,  which  derives  nearly  all  of  its  abstract  and 
scientific  terms  from  languages  not  merely  foreign  but  entirely  out  of  use. 
The  growth  of  mind  in  its  relation  to  language  has  been  here  dwelt  upon 
at  some  length  because  of  its  importance  as  a  source  of  practical  knowledge 
to  every  teacher  who  makes  the  study  of  mind  the  basis  of  his  operations. 
Arbitrary  rules  may  be  laid  down,  and  applied;  but  the  scientific  teacher 
who  investigates  the  foundation  of  these  rules  in  the  principles  of  in- 
tellectual science  will  best  know  how  to  adapt  his  methods  to  the  diversified 
exigencies  of  his  work.  Association  as  an  elementary  function  of  mind, 
is  dependent  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances  other  than  those  enumerated; 
as  time,  place,  cause  and  effect,  and  design.  These  are,  however,  of  second- 
ary importance  for  the  study  of  the  educator. 

The   peculiar  functions  of  the  representative  faculties,  memory  and 
imagination  should  receive  a  careful  study,  since  they  underlie  many  of 

the  most  important  processes  which  he  is  called  upon  to  direct. 

Repre-     /ggg   Imagination,   and   Mkmory.)     The   elaborative  faculties, 

faculties,   comparison,  abstraction,  and  generalization,  have  already  been 

referred  to  in  relation  to  the  rudimental  stage  of  their  operation ; 


INTEREST  —  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS  187 

iu  the  higher  grades  of  instruction,  they  find  constant  exercise  in  the 

studies  of  mathematics  and  natural  science,  which  form  a  part  of  the  cur- 

ricukim  of  every  high  school,  college,  and  university.  Judgment 

Elaoorative  ^^^  reason  pass  through  a  gradation  of  development  from  the 

'    most  elementary  to  the  highest  stages  of  education. 

Such  is  the  field  which  a  discussion  of  the  principles  of  intellectual 
education  embraces.  In  the  practical  application  of  these  principles,  the 
teacher  is  to  be  guided  not  only  by  a  knowledge  of  the  general 
General  functions  of  mind  and  their  development,  but  by  all  the  pecu- 
■  liarities  of  individual  endowment  which  he  may  be  able  to 
discern.  (See  Character,  Disceknmext  of.)  He  is  to  permit  the  mind 
to  expand  by  its  own  intrinsic  activities,  only  interposing  restraining  or 
stimulating  agencies  when  and  where  he  finds  a  tendency  to  abnormal  or 
morbid  growth.  There  are,  however,  special  methods  of  operation  in  in- 
tellectual education,  partaking  more  of  a  positive  character,  by  means  of 
which  the  teacher  is  directly  to  impart  knowledge  —  to  communicate  infor- 
mation; and,  thus,  is  opened  up  a  consideration  not  only  of  the  mind  to  be 
cultivated,  but  of  the  branches  of  knowledge  to  be  taught,  in  relation  to 
the  several  faculties  which  they  tend  to  cultivate.  (See  Instruction.)  In 
this  connection,  and  by  the  use  of  the  same  guiding  principles,  the  proper 
order  of  presenting  these  studies  must  be  considered  and  ascertained,  this 
order  being  correlated  with  the  natural  order  in  which  the  intellectual 
faculties  are  developed.  (See  Order  of  Studies.  )  The  final  result  of  this 
department  of  education  should  be,  to  enable  the  individual,  in  all  the 
circumstances  of  life,  to  exercise  with  efficiency  and  address  the  various 
intellectual  faculties  with  which  he  has  been  endowed.     (See  Culture.) 

INTEREST.  To  awaken  an  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  in  the 
subjects  of  instruction  should  always  be  a  prominent  object  of  the  teacher's 
efforts,  since  it  is  an  indispensable  condition  of  all  true  success.  Anteced- 
ently, the  young  pupil  feels  no  interest  in  the  school  studies;  he  neither 
appreciates  their  importance  nor  has  any  desire  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of 
the  subjects  of  which  they  treat.  But  the  skillful  teacher  knows  how  to 
stimulate  curiosity,  and  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  the  idea 
that  he  is  acquiring  knowledge,  and  thus  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the 
processes  of  instruction.  When  these  processes  are  appropriate  and  natural, 
the  pupils  interest  is  easily  sustained;  and  it  will  be  generally  found  that 
a  flagging  interest  is  due  either  to  previous  defective  training  or  to  the 
endeavor  to  teach  subjects  for  which  the  pupil's  mind  is  not  prepared.  It 
is  a  psychological  axiom  that  the  mind  has  no  less  ajipetite  for  knowledge 
of  the  right  kind,  than  exists  physically  for  proper  food  to  nourish  the 
body.  It  is,  therefore,  the  office  of  educational  science  to  determine  the 
kind  of  mental  food  proper  for  every  age,  and  how  it  should  be  prepared 
so  as  to  stimulate,  while  it  satisfies,  the  mental  appetite.  There  should 
also  be  individual  adaptation,  the  teacher  giving  whatever  attention  may  be 
necessary  to  the  special  inclinations,  tastes,  and  capacities  of  his  pupils. 
(See  Attention.) 

INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS  are  schools  of  a  grade  between 
primary  schools  and  grammar  schools,  or  between  elementary  schools  and 
nigh  schools.  Such  schools  generally  constitute  an  important  part  of  the 
graded  school  system.     Schools  of  a  grade  between  elementary  schools  (iu 


188  INTERROGATION  —  ITALIAN  LANGUAGE 

German,  Elemeniarschule),  and  colleges  and  universities,  are  often  called 
middle  schools  (German,  Mltlelschide). 

INTERROGATION,  or  the  Interrogative  Method,  is  an  indis- 
pensable means  of  conducting  most  processes  of  instruction;  particularly 
those   of  an   elementary  grade.      Its  otiice  is  either    (1)    tentative,    or 

(2)  illustrative.  As  a  tentative  process,  the  teacher  us?3  it  to  determine 
the  quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  knowledge  which  the  pupil  has  attained. 
Thus,  in  hearing  recitations,  the  teacher,  by  means  of  questions,  ascertains 
how  much  of  the  lesson  previously  assigned,  the  pupil  has  learned,  and 
with  what  accuracy  it  has  been  learned;  and  on  the  kind  of  questions 
asked,  a.s  well  as  on  the  manner  of  asking  them,  depends  the  degree  of  skill 
and  effectiveness  of  this  important  part  of  the  teacher's  work.  The  same 
is  true,  also,  of  the  conducting  of  examinations  by  school  inspectors  or 
superintendents.  The  process  of  questioning  is  also  tentative  when  used 
as  preliminary  to  a  course  of  instruction,  in  order  to  determine  the  amount 
of  information,  or  the  kind  of  ideas,  already  acquired  by  the  pupil,  either 
directly  relating  to  the  subject  or  remotely  connected  with  it,  and  constitut- 
ing the  elenientary  concei^tions  upon  which  it  is  to  be  based.  Instruction 
on  every  subject  needs  such  preliminary  questioning.  —  Interrogation  is 
illustrative  when  it  is  used  as  a  direct  means  of  instruction,  in  order  to 
induce  the  pupil  to  combine  his  ideas  in  such  a  M^ay  that  he  may  be  led  to 
a  clear  conception  of  the  truth.  This  Mas  the  process  used  by  riocrates  in 
giving  instruction;  and  hence,  it  is  often  called  ihe  Socratic  method.  Great 
skill  can  be  exercised  by  the  teacher  in  the  use  of  interrogation  for  this 
purpose;  indeed,  the  art  of  questioning  [catechdicsj  becomes  a  special  de- 
partment of  the  work  of  teaching,  and  has  been  so  treated.  Rules  can 
scarcely  be  given  for  its  attainment;  but  it  may  briefly  be  said  that  it 
depends  upon  (1)  a  thorough  training  of  the  analytic  faculty  of  the 
teacher,  (2)  such  a  minute  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be 
taught   as    will    enable   him  to  resolve  it  into  its  elementary  principles, 

(3)  a  full  appreciation  of  the  pupil's  condition  of  mind,  both  as  to  capacity 
and  degree  of  attainment,  and  (4)  sufficient  practice  in  interrogation  to 
produce  facility  in  framing  questions  of  every  kind  and  form.  AVhere 
these  conditions  exist,  the  questions  asked  will  be  an  effective  means  of 
making  every  subject  clear  to  the  learner's  mind.  (See  Catechetical 
Method.) 

INTUITI'VE  METHOD.     See  Object  TEAniixG. 

ITALIAN  LANGUAGE.  The  Italian  language  has  no  claims 
commensurate  with  those  of  the  German  or  the  French,  to  a  place  in  any 
.  regular  course  of  instruction  the  object  of  which  is  general 
education  ^^^i^ture,  and  which,  to  that  end,  embraces  the  study  of  one  or 
'  two  modern  languages.  Its  value  for  this  purpose  has  not, 
however,  been  without  advocates.  Thus  L.  Gantter,  the  author  of  the 
article  on  the  Italian  language,  in  Schmid's  Encyclopddie  (vol.  Ill),  in 
discussing  the  relative  importance  of  the  principal  modern  languages  for 
the  German  gymnasia,  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  assigns  the  first 
place  to  English,  the  second  to  Italian,  and  the  third  to  French;  and  ho 
appeals  to  Goethe,  Niebuhr,  Raumer,  Gregorovius,  and  many  other 
celebrities  to  prove  that  the  educational  inipulse  which  may  reasonably  be 
expected  from  a  study  of  the  Italian  language  and  literature,  would  prove 


JUDGMEXT  189 

stronger  and  more  conducive  to  a  general  development  of  the  mental 
faculties  than  that  received  from  the  study  of  French.  Italian  has,  how- 
ever, special  importance  for  all  students  of  music,  vocal  and 
Special  jjistrumental,  as  well  as  for  students  of  the  fine  arts.  Music,  in 
"  '  every  country  of  the  world,  uses  to  a  large  extent  technical  ex- 
pressions borrowed  from  the  Italian;  the  Italian  opera  is  exceedingly 
popular  in  every  large  city  of  the  world,  and  there  is  no  student  of  the 
fine  arts  who  is  not  anxious  to  complete  his  study  of  Italian  art  in  Italy. 
These  considerations  have  not  only  created  a  demand  for  instruction  in 
Italian,  but  they  are  sufficiently  important  to  recommend  to  students  of 
music  and  of  the  fine  arts  a  much  more  general  study  of  this  beautiful 
language  than  is  to  be  met  with  at  present;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that 
xuiiversities,  colleges,  academies,  and  especially  female  institutions  of  a 
higher  grade,  do  not,  more  frequently  than  is  the  case  at  present,  afford  to 
their  pupils  an  opportunity  to  learn  this  language. 

The  special  motives  which,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  lead  to  a  study  of 
this  language,  naturally  suggest  a  method  of  instruction  different  from  that 
pursued  in  the  teaching  of  French  and  German.  The  beauty  of 
Character-  ^j^^  language,  which  is  reflected  in  its  structure  and  pronuncia- 
tion, and  which  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  lofty  position 
which  Italian  art  has  attained  in  the  history  of  civiliziition,  should  be  pointed 
out  with  special  care.  Exercises  in  grammar  and  translation  will  require 
comparatively  little  attention;  for  not  only  is  the  structure  of  the  language 
unusually  simple  and  easy,  but  its  study  is  hardly  ever  begun  until,  in 
addition  to  the  vernacular,  the  knowledge  of  some  other  language  has  been 
acquired.  All  the  greater  prominence,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  given 
to  the  practice  of  conversation;  for  only  in  this  way  will  the  pupil  fully 
realize  the  superiority  of  the  language  in  point  of  beauty  and  euphony, 
and  prepare  himself  for  a  visit  to  the  country  which,  more  than  any  other, 
captivates  the  affections  of  every  artist,  'i  he  literature  of  Italy  scarcely 
admits  of  a  comparison  with  that  of  Germany  or  France;  but  the  golden 
age  of  Italian  literature  presents  names  which  will  never  fail  to  recommend 
the  study  of  the  Italian  language  to  advanced  scholars.  Dante 
Literature.  j,j^jj].g  ^[^i^  Homer,  Yirgil,  Milton,  and  Goethe,  as  one  of  the 
greatest  poets  of  the  world,  whom  all  civilized  nations  will  always  admire; 
and  Italian  would  be  studied,  if  it  were  only  to  read  the  Divina  Ccniimedia. 
See  CydopoEdia  of  Education. 

JUDGMENT,  Training  of.  This  department  of  intellectual  culture 
needs  no  special  attention,  if  the  whole  educational  system,  in  other 
respects,  is  judicious  and  rational;  i.  e.,  adapted  to  the  individual  both  as 
to  age  (degree  of  maturity)  and  peculiarities  of  character  or  endowment. 
Where  this  is  not  the  case,  an  efficient  corrective  may  be  applied  by 
bringing  into  exercise  the  pupil's  mental  faculties  in  various  ways  and  in 
connection  with  various  subjects.  The  departure  must  be  taken  from  the 
sphere  of  the  pupil's  experience;  he  must  be  led  (1)  to  accurate  observation 
of  particulars  —  minute  details;  (2)  to  their  collation,  as  preliminary  to 
generalization;  and  (3)  to  their  classification  under  appropriate  heads. 
When  general  principles  or  rules  have  been  established  in  the  pupil's  mind 
in  this  way,  his  judgment  will  be  brought  into  play  in  the  application  of 


190  KIXDERGARTEX 

the  principle  or  rule  to  particular  objects  or  facts.  Thus,  in  natural  history, 
after  the  pupil  has  learned  the  characteristics  of  genera  and  species  by  a 
minute  and  accurate  observation  of  individual  specimens,  he  cannot, 
without  an  exercise  of  judgment,  determine  whether  any  particular 
specimen,  previously  unobserved,  belongs  to  one  or  the  other  geniis  or 
species.  He  must  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  distinguishing  qualities, 
both  of  the  individual  and  of  the  class,  in  order  to  determine  whether  the 
correspondence  exists  or  not.  As  regards  concrete  objects,  the  judgment 
is  exercised  at  a  very  early  age,  and  is  constantly  trained  more  or  less  by 
every  legitimate  process  of  intellectual  education;  but  as  regards  abstract 
truths,  this  faculty  is  one  of  the  last  to  attain  a  full  or  mature  development. 
Accuracy  in  judging  depends  very  much  on  the  mental  habits  formed 
during  the  period  of  early  education.  Habits  of  attention,  careful  observa- 
tion, dispassionate,  conscientious  reasoning,  and  a  profound  and  earnest 
love  of  truth,  will  qualify  any  person  for  the  exercise  of  a  sound  judgment 
in  regard  to  any  subject  of  study  or  investigation.  A  mental  character 
based  upon  such  habits  will  be  free  from  prejudice,  and  will  readily  learn 
to  eliminate  all  passion  from  its  intellectual  processes;  and,  hence,  its 
judgments  being  solely  based  upon  the  facts  acquired,  will  be  correct  or 
the  contrary,  in  proportion  to  the  accuracy  and  extent  of  the  information 
possessed. 

KINDERGARTEN  {Qer.,  cJnldren's  gni'deti),  a  Y)ecn\ia.T  system  of 
education,  founded  by  Friedrich  Froebel,  designed  to  precede  all  other 
elementary  training,  and  to  prepare  the  child  for  regular  instruction  by 
exercising  all  its  powers  so  as  to  render  it  self-active.  While  the  reformers 

of  education  before  his  time,  Pcstalozzi  included,  whose  assistant 
talidea^  he  was,  treated  the  youthful  mind,  more  or  less,  as  a  passive 

recipient  of  truth,  goodness,  and  beauty,  it  was  Froebel's 
fundamental  idea  to  set  the  child  to  do  whatever  it  could  be  induced  to  do 
as  a  kind  of  amusement,  exercising  its  observing  faculties  in  connection 
with  its  playthings  and  games,  and  thus  to  create  in  it  an  interest  in 

learning.  He  discovered,  by  means  of  half  a  century's  attentive 
deduced     P^"*'^'^*^'^^  ^^  teaching,  in  association  with  many  other  excellent 

educators,  that  the  faculties  of  most  children  are  stunted  in 
infancy  and  earliest  youth  by  the  want  of  appropriate  mental  food;  that 
every  child  may  be  develojied  (may  develop  itself)  into  a  self-educator  by 
appropriate  amusements ;  and  that,  in  this  manner,  pleasure  may  be  made 
the  most  efficient  instrument  in  the  first  stages  of  education.  He  studied 
all  the  plays  and  games  in  use  from  the  most  ancient  times,  in  order  to 
find  their  special  adaptation  to  mental  and  bodily  growth,  and  thus  formed 
a  complete  philosophical  system  of  early  intellectual  culture.  This  culture 
_  was  to  begin  in  the  earliest  years,  with  ball  plays,  accompanied 
cuUure^^  by  snatches  of  song  and  rhyme;  later,  with  a  sphere,  a  cube,  and 

a  cylinder  of  wood,  used  for  various  amusing  exercises,  and 
calculated  to  enliven  the  attention,  and  increase  the  self-activity  of  the 
infant.  The  two  little  books  for  mothers,  which  contain  his  suggestions 
for  this  purpose,  disclaim  any  merit  of  invention;  he  considers  them  derived 
simply  from  a  diligent  observation  of  the  methods  of  many  excellent  and 
successful  mothers.     But  it  was  not  from  books  alone  that  he  intended 


KINDERGARTEN"  191 

that  mothers  should  learn  how  to  train  their  children.  They  were  to  be 
educated,  as  young  children,  in  a  kindergarten,  and  afterwards,  before 
graduating  from  the  upper  classes,  to  learn  the  art  of  infant  education  in  a 
model  kindergarten.  Jt  was  in  this  way  that  he  hoped  to  render,  in  the 
course  of  time,  all  mothers  true  educators  of  infancy,  the  centers  of  happy 
family  circles,  and  the  priestesses  of  a  higher  humanity,  so  that  they  might 
be  "  in  harmony  with  themselves,  with  nature,  and  with  God  ". 

But  mere  family  education  being  liable  to  one-sidedness  and  exclu- 
siveness,  social  education  should  begin  early,  in  order  to  complement  the 
former.  During  part  of  the  day,  the  child  should  be  in  company 
Social  .^-^jj  many  other  children  of  the  same  age,  and  should  engage  in 
e  uca  ion.  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  supply,  in  a  gradually  ascending  scale,  proper 
food  for  the  mental  and  bodily  appetites  and  functions,  while  making  the 
company  of  httle  ones  as  happy  as  possible.  This  can  be  done  only  under 
the  guidance  of  a  true  teacher,  who  should  be  a  female  capable,  by  natural 
endowments  and  previous  study,  to  take  the  place,  in  this  respect,  of  the 
mother.  The  locality  should  be  a  hall  in  a  garden,  with  flowers,  shrubs, 
trees,  each  child  having  its  own  flower-bed,  so  that  it  may  learn  how  to 
raise  plants,  and  to  enjoy  nature.  The  playful  occupations  of  the  pupils 
comprise  a  great  variety  of  plays  in  a  given  order  which,  however,  should 
not  be  absolutely  fixed,  but  should  afford  a  healthy  change,  without  in- 
ducing habits  of  imperfect  attention  and  restlessness.  None  of  these 
occupations  were  the  invention  of  Froebel;  they  had  all  been  practiced 
more  or  less  before  his  time.  But  their  combination  into  a  harmonious 
whole,  their  adaptation  for  mental  food  in  every  direction,  and  their 
development  in  detail  must  be  set  down  as  Froebel's  creation;  and  the  ex- 
perience had  with  them  for  more  than  twenty-five  years,  and  in  many 
hundreds  of  kindergartens,  justifies  the  wisdom  of  the  system.  There  is 
still  much  controversy  among  the  followers  of  Froebel  themselves  in  regard 
to  the  minor  details  of  the  system;  and  some  improvement  has  been  made 
upon  his  own  first  practical  realization  of  the  idea,  which,  from  insuffi- 
ciency of  means,  could  not  be  all  that  he  desired;  but  the  indefinite 
perfectibility  of  the  system  in  practical  details,  according  to  its  principles, 
insures  its  progressive  success. 

The  exercises  of  the  kindergarten  are  alternately  carried  on  in  a  sitting, 
and  in  a  standing  or  walking  position,  for  the  sake  of  a  salutary  change, 
and  are  partly  such  as  can,  without  special  training,  be  guided 
Exercises,  ^^j  any  good  teacher;  namely,  singing;  the  reciting  of  child-like 
poetry  committed  to  memory  by  means  of  the  teacher's  frequent  repetition; 
light  gymnastics,  marching  exercises,  and  easy  ball  plays;  acting  the  doings 
of  men  and  animals;  all  these  accompanied  from  time  to  time  with 
song,  or  turned  into  object  lessons  by  frequent  conversation  on  the  things 
mentioned  or  represented;  also  amusing  employment,  with  playthings, 
called  gifts,  of  which  there  are  several  sets.  (See  Gifts.)  The  guidance 
of  these  occupations  requires  a  practical  training,  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher,  and  a  theoretical  study  which  never  can  be  too  thorough,  if  the 
pupil's  mental  and  moral  development  is  to  become  what  Froebel  intended 
it  to  be.  Each  of  these  exercises  serves  a  threefold  purpose,  —  to  produce 
forms  of  beauty,  forms  of  life  (such  as  resemble  things  that  occur  within 
the  child's  experience),  and  forms  of  knowledge  (such  as  may  lead  to  a 


192  KIXDERGARTEX 

knowledge  of  the  qualities,  quantities  and  actions  of  objects).  The  child 
itself  is  to  produce  these  forms;  the  teacher  is  not  to  teach  them,  but  to 
lead  his  pupil  by  suggestions  conveyed  in  questions  or  conversation,  so 
that  the  child  may  become  inventive.  To  do  this  properly,  Froebel  has 
advised  a  method  based  on  the  laic  0/ contraries  and  their  combination 
into  a  higher  unit;  but  the  teacher  is  to  abstain  from  all  learned  lore  — 
from  using  abstract  expressions.  Abstract  notions  and  works  are  severely 
banished  from  the  kindergarten;  it  is  merely  concrete  facts,  which  the 
child  can  learn  through  the  senses,  and  can  clothe  in  its  own  language, 
that  can  become  familiar  to  it  by  its  own  mental  assimilation.  Neither  is 
discipline  to  be  maintained  by  authority  or  by  any  mechanical  means;  but 
_.  .  ,.  by  the  suggestions  of  the  teacher,  and  by  the  pupils'  own  ab- 
JJiscipline.  sQ|.ption  in  the  interest  of  their  occupations.  Thus  children  are, 
at  an  early  age.  enabled  to  discipline  themselves  through  pleasant  em- 
ployment, to  submit  to  the  will  of  the  majority  of  their  equals,  on  the  one 
hand,  or  to  assert,  on  the  other,  their  own  free  volition,  if  they  can  induce 
others  to  agree  with  them.  Thus,  they  are  to  take  their  first  lessons  in 
moral  self-government. 

An  objection  has  been  urged  to  the  general  introduction  of  the  kinder- 
garten as  being  too  costly;  but  experience  has  established  the  indisputable 
fact,  that  a  good  kindergarten  need  cost  no  more  than  the  best 
yostnness.  pi^j^jary  school.  The  genuine  kindergartner  —  and  none  but 
such  ought  to  be  employed  —  can  superintend  more  than  a  hundred  children 
at  a  time,  provided  she  begin  with  no  more  than  twenty,  adding  twenty 
more  as  soon  as  she  has  a  good  assistant  able  to  replace  her:  and  again 
twenty  more,  and  so  on,  whenever  one  more  assistant  is  prepared  to  take 
her  place.  Such  assistants  may  be  pupils  of  the  training  or  normal  school 
clas.5es.  who  wish  to  acquire  the  art  of  infant  education,  and  need  not  be 
paid  for  their  assistance.  These  pupil- teachers  will  not,  of  course,  by 
merely  six  months'  help  in  this  way,  be  fully  able  to  conduct  a  kindergart^^n 
independently;  but  they  will  learn  enough  to  be  valuable  assistants,  and  to 
become  good  educators  as  mothers.  This  is  not  merely  an  economical 
measure  but  is  sustained  by  pedagogical  principles.  'J'he  little  pupils  of  a 
kindergarten,  from  four  to  seven  years  old.  will  form  several  grades,  that 
can  simultaneously  be  engaged  only  in  certain  occupations;  while,  in  all 
others,  they  must  be  separatRly  employed.  As,  then,  divisions  into  grades 
are  indispensable,  and  the  principal  teacher  must  go  from  one  to  the  other, 
she  can  leave  all  the  grades  under  the  guidance  of  proficient  a.s.sistants, 
taking  the  pupil  teachers  along  from  division  to  division,  thus  affording 
them  an  opportunity  to  witness  the  greatest  variety  of  exerci.ses  possible 
within  a  short  space  of  time,  and  to  practice  every  one  under  her  direction. 
Besides,  she  can  hardly  fail  to  receive  valuable  support  in  the  singing, 
articulation,  and  gj-mnastic  exercises,  from  the  talents  of  some  of  her  as- 
sistants. But  even  more  important  is  the  following  consideration.  It  is 
almost  impossible  to  carry  on  a  genuine  kindergarten  successfully  without 
the  exercise  of  a  widespread  and  lively  interest  in  it  among  the  women, 
especially  the  mothers,  of  the  community.  So  long  as  they  do  not  fre- 
quently vi.sit  the  institute,  they  will  not  fully  appreciate  its  purposes  and 
results;  they  will  insist  that  their  children  should  begin  to  learn  the 
alphabet;  and,  if  that  is  not  done,  they  will  perhaps  take  them  away  to 


LANGUAGE  193 

some  primary  school.  Many  Icindergartners  of  our  country  yield  to  the 
demand  of  the  mothers,  and  make  the  alphabet  and  ciphering  a  part  of  the 
regular  kindergarten  exercises;  but  this  is  a  positive  loss  to  the  children. 

Owing  to  the  necessity  of  special  skill  and  training  in  order  to  conduct 
a  kindergarten  efficiently,  many  persons  who  undertake  this  work  fail, 

through  want  of  preparation,  to  produce  the  results  designed. 
efficiencv    ^^  *^^^  ^^^  spurious  kindergartens  have  caused  much  complaint, 

and  brought  considerable  discredit  upon  the  system.  The  test 
of  a  good  kindergarten  is  its  obvious  effect  upon  the  pupils,  in  exciting 
cheerfulness,  intelligence,  activity,  and  a  fondness  for  the  school  work.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  children  dislike  the  school,  it  is  an  evidence  that 
there  is  a  want  of  tact  and  skill  in  its  management.  There  may,  indeed, 
exist  in  such  a  school  all  the  occupations  recommended  by  Froebel,  and 
each  may  be  used  according  to  the  established  formula;  but  if  the  spirit  in 
which  the  exercises  are  to  be  conducted  is  missing,  if  the  treatment  is 
mechanical,  all  the  moral  influence  which  should  spring  from  the  cheerful 
self -activity  of  the  child,  is  lost.  If  too,  the  teacher  shows  always  the  calm 
and  dignified  deportment  of  the  ordinary  class  disciplinarian,  instead  of 
entering  with  all  her  heart  into  the  harmless  joy  from  which  the  child's 
self-government  is  to  take  a  fruitful  growth,  and  calming  only  the  trouble- 
some excess  of  this  mirth  by  now  and  then  a  look,  a  word,  or  a  gesture, 
she  is  not  well  fitted  for  her  calling.  A  genuine  kindergarten  teacher 
will,  like  the  best  of  mothers,  take  a  lively  interest  in  remedying,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  bodily,  mental,  and  moral  defects  of  every  child  under  her 
care, —  uncleanly  and  disorderly  habits,  want  of  attention,  stammering, 
color-blindness,  a  bad  gait  or  posture,  imperfect  articulation,  etc.  She  will, 
in  this  way,  earn  the  gratitude  of  the  children  and  their  parents,  and  exert 
a  great  moral  influence.  Her  efforts  in  this  respect  are,  in  a  great  measure 
facilitated  by  the  pliability  of  the  child's  powers,  as  well  as  by  its  desire  to 
avoid  ridicule,  and  to  enjoy  the  society  of  its  comrades.  Abundant  ex- 
perience teaches,  that  there  need  be  no  incurable  cases  of  the  above  kind 
among  children  who  have  the  full  use  of  their  senses;  that  all  children  may 
learn  drawing,  singing,  correct  enunciation,  geometry,  and  many  other  arts 
and  accomplishments  that  are.  by  common  prejudice,  pronounced  attainable 
by  those  only  who  are  specially  gifted.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  a 
kindergartner  can  hardly  be  too  well  educated;  and,  also,  that  no  education 
repays  so  abundantly  its  cost.  —  For  literature  of  this  subject,  see  special 
list  in  the  Appendix  of  this  work. 

LANGrUAGE  (Lat.  lingua,  the  tongue,  speech),  according  to  the 
ordinary  acceptation  of  the  word,  is  the  utterance  of  articulate  sounds  for 
the  purpose  of  expressing  thought.  This  mode  of  expression  constitutes 
one  of  the  characteristic  faculties  of  man;  since  no  comnmnity  of  human 
beings,  in  historic  times,  has  been  found  entirely  destitute  of  language;  and  a 
broad  line  of  demarcation  separates  every  kind  of  human  speech  of  which 
we  have  any  knowledge  from  all  the  modes  of  expression  used  by  brutes. 

The  development  of  language  in  a  child  should  not  outrun  his  mental 

development;  it  should  at  first  follow,  and  subsequently  accompany  it. 

Develop-     The  child,  from  his  first  infancy,  has  a  tendency  to  give  some 

ment.       kind  of  expression  to  all  the  emotions  of  his  mind.    At  first, 


194  LATIN  LAXGUAGE 

various  movements  of  the  body,  and  inarticulate  sounds  servo  for  the 
purpose;  when  the  perceptions  become  more  distinct,  the  child  looks 
around  for  more  definite  expressions,  and  finds  them  in  the  word-language 
of  those  who  surround  him.  If  the  child  has  sound  organs  of  speech,  the 
task  of  the  educator,  at  first,  is  comparatively  easy.  An  artificial  plan  is 
neither  necessary  nor  practical;  an  occasional  influence  is  sufficient.  By 
hearing  the  names  of  objects,  actions,  qualities,  circumstances,  and  rela- 
tions, which  he  perceives,  coiTCctly  and  distinctly  pronounced,  the  child 
obtains  his  first  knowledge  of  words,  and  learns  to  associate  them  with  the 
designated  objects.  The  memory,  without  difficulty,  retains  a  large  number 
of  words,  and  frequent  practice  .soon  leads  to  readiness  of  speech.  Occa- 
sional conversations  with  the  child  on  the  objects  of  his  attention,  with 
little  descriptions  and  narratives,  afford  him  the  necessary  material  for 
expressing  the  combinations  of  his  thoughts,  and  aid  in  the  development 
of  his  mind.  Where  the  cultivation  of  speech  is  neglected  in  the  educa- 
tion of  a  child,  the  intellectual  development  is  likewise  retarded.  On  the 
other  hand,  any  attempt  to  force  unduly  the  rapid  development  of  speech, 
may  lead  to  vain  and  thoughtless  garrulity,  or  to  a  production  of  erroneous 
representations  in  the  mind,  which  will  obstruct  its  harmonious  development. 
During  this  first  stage  of  education,  the  mother  is  the  child's  natural  and 
best  teacher  of  language,  and  the  language  which  the  child  thus  learns  has 
justly  been  called  the  "  mother-tongue".  Home  education  may  receive  a 
useful,  and  in  many  cases  a  very  desirable,  aid  in  a  good  kindergarten. 

The  instruction  provided  for  in  the  common  schools  of  modern  times 
aims  chiefly  at  perfecting  the  pupil  in  his  vernacular  language.  The  course 

of  instruction  to  this  end  embraces  exercises  in  spelling,  reading, 
Vernac-    yyj.\^[i^„  definitions,  composition,  English  grammar,  elocution, etc. 

There  is  still  great  diversity  of  opinion  among  educators  as  to 
the  best  methods  of  teacTiing  each  of  these  branches,  and  as  to  the  relative 
position  which   each  of   them  should    occupy  in   the  course  of  studies. 

This  subject  is  fully  discussed  in  the  special  articles  devoted  to 
Methods,  ^-^q  branches  of  instruction  just  enumerated.  All  educators, 
however,  agree  in  regarding  it  as  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  school  education 
to  give  to  the  pupil  a  good  knowledge  of  his  vernacular  language,  and 
fluency  in  speaking  and  writing  it  correctly.  l">ven  in  those  branches  of 
study  which  neither  solely  nor  chiefly  aim  at  improving  the  linguistic 
knowledge  of  the  pupil,  as  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  etc.,  every 
educator  nowadays  requires  that  pupils  shall  be  trained  in  the  correction 
of  language,  and  taught  to  avoid  common  errors  of  speech.  —  See  Marcel, 
Language  as  a  Means  of  Menial  Culture  and  International  Commvnica- 
/«o?i"(rx)ndoa,  185,3);  and  The  Study  of  Languages  (N.  Y.,  18G9);  Whit- 
ney,  Tlie  Life  and  Grmrtli  of  Language  (N.  Y.,  1875). 

LATIN  LANGUAGE,  one  of  the  two  classical  languages,  which  as 
the  language  of  one  of  the  greatest  empires  of  the  world,  and  of  one  of  the 
richest  of  literatures,  and  .subsequently  as  the  official  language  of  the  Catholic 
church,  the  literary  language  of  western  Europe,  and  the  mother  of  the 
Romanic  languages,  has  been  among  the  foremo.st  agents  in  developing 
modern  civilization.  For  a  full  account  of  its  development  as  a  branch 
of  modern  education  see  Ci/chpcpdia  of  Education.^  We  give  here  only  a 
few  practical  suggestions  as  to  the  methods  of  teaching  it. 


LATIX  LANGUAGE  iD.") 

However  much  the  methods  of  teaching  Latin  may  differ  in  certain 
details,  no  one  should  dispense  with  a  thorough  drilling  in  the  inflectional 

part  of  the  language  and  in  the  principal  rules  of  syntax.  Exer- 
Methods.  ^^-ggg  jj^  translating  from  Latin  into  English;  and  lirom  English 
into  Latin,  are  now  quite  generally  connected  with  the  very  first  grammar 
lessons.  In  accordance  with  the  principles  of  modern  educational  writers, 
the  exercises  in  translation  are  now,  from  the  beginning,  very  properly 
given  in  most  of  the  text-books  in  the  shape  of  complete  sentences.  In  the 
system  of  T.  K.  Arnold  the  inflectional  peculiarities  are  learned  gradually, 
as  in  the  Ollendorff  system,  and  almost  the  first  step  taken  by  the  pupil  is 
an  exercise  in  construction. 

The  very  large  extent  to  which  words  of  Latin  origin  have  been  received 
into  English  can  be  turned  to  great  advantage  by  the  intelligent  teacher. 

But  few  words  will  be  met  with  in  the  Latin  exercises,  which 
^E'^^Vsh^  are  not  etymologically  related  to  words  in  the  English  dictionary; 
'  and  a  constant  reference  to  this  kinship  not  only  facilitates  the 
acquisition  by  the  student  of  a  copious  Latin  vocabulary,  but  at  the  same 
time  enlarges  his  knowledge  of  English.  The  introduction  of  young 
students  who  have  sufficiently  mastered  the  elements  of  the  language,  to 

the  Latin  classics  is  considerably  obstructed  by  the  want  of  good 
imeniU  j^^enile  works  in  the  literature  of  Rome.  If  that  literature 
books.      ever  had  its  Barbaulds  and  Edgeworths,  their  fame  has  perished 

with  their  works.  The  books  which  for  centuries  have  been  the 
first  to  be  read  in  Latin  schools,  —  Cornelius  Nepos  and  Csesar,  were 
certainly  not  written  for  boys  and  girls.  Even  in  Rome,  they  were  as  little 
read  by  children  of  ten,  eleven,  or  twelve  years,  as  our  children  of  that  age 
are  expected  to  read  Shakespeare,  Gibbon,  or  Macaulay;  and  it  is,  there- 
fore, undoubtedly  a  pertinent  question,  from  an  educational  point  of  view, 
whether  it  is  consistent  with  common  sense  to  expect  English  boys  and 
girls  to  read  and  appreciate  writers  whom  the  youth  of  the  same  age  in 
their  own  country  would  have  found  too  difficult  to  undei'stand.  Various 
attempts  have  been  made,  in  modern  times,  to  supply  this  want,  and  to 
provide  young  Latin  students  with  suitable  reading.  Sometimes  modern 
imitations  of  the  ancient  Latin  have  been  selected  for  the  purpose.     Such, 

for  example,  is  Willymot's  Centxry  of  Miturinics  Gorderius 
Text-books.  (joH^qfiigg^^  long  familiarly  known  in  Scotland  under  the  name  of 
Cordery.  Certain  portions  of  the  dialogues  of  Erasmus  have  the  same  ob- 
ject in  view.  As  the  most  successful  attempt  of  tlie  kind,  many  Latin 
scholars  regard  a  little  work  entitled  De  Viris  lUustribus  Urbis  Rovice, 
and  commonly  known  in  the  United  States  as  Viri  Rnmce,  by  L'Homond, 
a  French  professor  of  the  eighteenth  century.  This  work  contains  the 
most  interesting  stories  related  by  Livy,  Valerius  Maximus,  Floras,  and 
other  eminent  writers,  as  much  as  possible  in  the  very  words  of  those 
writers,  and  is  still  extensively  used  in  tlie  L'nited  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in  Germany.  Attempts  have  also  been  made 
to  epitomize  special  Latin  classics  for  the  use  of  young  students;  thus,  in 
recent  times,  an  epitome  of  Csesar,  prepared  by  Dr.  Woodford,  classical 
master  in  Madras  College,  St.  Andrews,  has  been  in  extensive  use.  Many 
of  the  Latin  readers  also  contain  attempts  of  this  kind.  The  reading  of 
Latin  classics  constitutes  the  principal  part  of  the  study  of  Latin  wherever 


Id6  LECTURKS  —  LIBRARIES 

it  is  pursued,  cxcejit  when  only  the  elements  of  Latin  etymology  are  taught 
for  the  purpose  of  elucidating  the  structure  of  English.  —  See  CyclopoEdia 
of  Ediicafion . 

LECTURES,  or  Lecture  System,  a  method  of  giving  instruction 
by  formal  expositions,  generally  written  out  and  read  to  the  learners.  Hence 
the  term  lecture  (from  the  Latin,  meaning  reading  or  something  rend). 
Lectures  are,  however,  quite  often  extemporaneous,  or  dehvered  without 
previous  preparation  of  the  language.  The  lecture  differs  from  the  lesson 
chiefly  in  dispen.sing  with  the  ordinary  processes  of  the  recitation  room  — 
question  and  answer,  repetition,  etc.  The  learners  simply  listen,  or  take 
notes,  while  the  lecturer  reads  or  speaks,  with  or  without  illustrations  by 
means  of  the  blackboard,  maps,  pictures,  apjjaratus,  etc.  Lectures,  as  a 
system  of  instruction,  are  chiefly  depended  on  in  higher  education  —  in 
colleges  and  universities,  also  in  technical,  scientific,  and  professional  schools, 
because  the  students  are  supposed  to  have  acquired  a  considerable  maturity 
of  intellect,  enabling  them  not  only  to  receive  knowledge  without  exercises 
specially  designed  to  awaken  attention  or  stimulate  the  understanding,  but 
to  exercise  their  own  faculties  in  arranging  it  in  their  minds  for  use,  —  in 
other  words,  co-ordinating  it  with  their  previously  acquired  knowledge. 
They  are,  besides,  supposed  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  information 
communicated,  so  as  not  to  need  any  special  stimulus  to  self-activity.  In 
elementary  instruction,  all  these  conditions  are  reversed;  and,  therefore, 
the  lecture  system  is  inappropriate  at  that  stage.  In  middle  schools  (second- 
ary instruction),  lectures  may  be  used  with  good  effect,  in  connection,  or 
alternation,  with  the  ordinary  recitation  processes.  When  the  material 
has  been  methodically  arranged,  and  when  the  statements  are  definite  and 
precise,  the  language  simple  and  forcible,  and  the  style  earnest,  lectures  may 
be  made  to  subserve  a  verv  useful  purpose. 

LIBERAL  EDUCATION,  literally,  that  which  is  suited  to  the 
condition  and  wants  of  a  freeman  or  a  gentleman,  that  is,  extending 
beyond  the  practical  necessities  of  life;  hence,  contrasted  with  a  ]>ractical 
education,  or  that  which  is  designed  to  fit  for  mechanical  or  business  pur- 
suits. A  lil)eral  education  embraces  within  its  scope  instruction  in  all 
those  branches  which  collectively  are  called  the  liumanitiea  (q.  v.). 

LIBRARIES  constitute  one  of  the  most  important  instrumentalities 
for  stimulating  the  intellectual  improvement  of  the  people,  as  well  a.s  for 
the  mental  and  moral  training  of  pupils  in  schools.  The  value  of  a  school 
library  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  books  of  which  it  is  com- 
po.sed,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  applied.  A  large  and  expensive  collection 
of  books  is  not  needed;  but  the  books  sliould  be  instructive  and  interesting 
to  children,  so  that  through  their  perusal  they  may  not  only  obtain  useful 
information,  but  imbibe  a  taste  for  reading.  By  this  means,  an  antidote 
may,  in  part  at  least,  be  applied  to  the  influence  of  the  trashy,  exciting, 
and  sensational  literature,  which  so  greatly  abounds  at  the  present  time, 
and  which  is  .so  apt  to  corrupt  both  the  minds  and  morals  of  the  young. 
"A  library  is  the  indi.spensablc  sup])lcment  to  the  systematic  mental 
instruction  given  in  the  class-room.  If,  for  instance,  care  be  taken  and 
opportunities  sought  during  the  lessons  in  geograjihy,  historj',  or  in  any  of 
the  departments  of  science,  to  introduce  some  little  book  from  the  library, 
and  to  read  a  few  interesting  paragraphs  illustrating  the  lesson,  a  brief 


LICENSE  —  LOVE  191 

notice  and  commendation  of  the  book  at  the  close  of  the  exercise,  with  a 
few  hints  as  to  how  best  to  read  it,  will  utilize  many  a  valuable  work  that 

might  otherwise  remain  untouched  upon  the  shelves A  teacher  has 

failed  in  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  his  functions,  if,  being  in  posses- 
sion of  a  good  school  library,  he  has  not  fixed,  in  at  least  some  of  his 
pupils,  the  habit  and  love  of  self-culture,  by  leading  them  to  become 
habitual  readers". 

LICENSE,  Teacher's,  a  legal  permission  to  give  instruction,  gener- 
ally in  a  public  school.  This  license  is  usually  conferred  after  examination, 
and  attested  by  a  certificate,  either  temporary  or  permanent,  which  is 
evidence  to  employing  school  boards  that  the  holder  is  a  qualified  teacher, 
sometimes  called  a  certificated  teacher.  The  object  of  such  a  license  to 
teach  is  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  community  against  the  evils  arising 
from  the  employment  of  incompetent  persons  by  those  who  might  not  be 
able  to  test  the  qualifications  of  applicants,  or  who  might,  from  favoritism 
or  corrupt  motives,  be  willing  to  employ  as  teachers  persons  not  possessing 
the  requisite  qualifications.  In  the  United  States,  the  requirement  that 
all  teachers  should  be  duly  examined  and  hcensed  previous  to  appointment 
is  almost  universal.  The  practice  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  examination, 
and  the  forms  and  grades  of  the  certificate,  vai'ies  considerably  in  the 
different  states,  for  information  in  regard  to  which,  see  the  titles  of  the 
states,  respectively.  In  all  an  unqualified  attestation  of  moral  character 
is  required,  in  addition  to  literary  and  professional  qualifications.  (See 
Walsh,  The  Lawyer  in  tJie  Scliool-Room,  N.  Y.,  1871,  s.  v.  Tlie  Law 
as  to  the  Teacher's  Morality.) 

LOVE,  on  the  part  of  pupils  for  their  teacher,  is  one  of  the  most 
essential  elements  of  his  success,  just  as  antipathy  constitutes  an  unsur- 
mountable  obstacle  to  the  exertion  of  any  important  educational 
^'^^''  "'"^'influence.  The  first  thing,  therefore,  which  the  educator  should 
strive  to  do  is  to  win  the  affection  of  his  pupils;  if  that  is  accomplished, 
every  thing  else  Avill  be  done  without  ditBculty.  It  is  of  httle  use  to  address 
merely  the  intellect  of  children.  Their  curiosity,  it  is  true,  can  be  excited, 
their  attention  aroused,  and  the  faculties  of  their  minds,  to  a  certain 
extent,  be  developed  and  sharpened;  but  the  real  elements  of  character  are 
behind  all  this;  and  those  cannot  be  affected  in  any  important  degree  by 
mere  intellectual  training.  The  heart  —  the  sensibilities  and  the  will  — 
must  be  reached;  and  the  key  to  success  in  this,  the  greatest  oflice  of  the 
educator,  is  love.  When  love  for  the  teacher  reigns  in  the  bosom  of  his 
pupil,  there  is  entire  confidence  in  him,  a  desire  to  obey  him,  to  please 
him,  to  listen  to  his  precepts,  to  imitate  his  example,  both  in  words  and 
in  acts;  indeed,  by  an  inexplicable  psychologic  law,  the  pupil  seems  to  be 
bound  to  the  teacher  by  a  kind  of  magnetic  chain,  and  is  subject  in  every 
thing  to  his  will.     Fear,  on  the  other  hand,  repels,  and  thus 

^'^'  ■  prevents  the  operation  of  that  influence  without  which  educa- 
tional processes  are,  more  or  less,  nugatory.  The  fear  to  do  wrong,  and  of 
the  punishment  which  is  to  follow  it,  is  not,  however,  inconsistent  with  a 
love  of  the  teacher.  (See  Fear.)  The  latter  must  make  himself,  and  the 
authority  which  he  wields,  respected;  or  he  will  incur  the  contempt  of  his 
pupils;  and  this  is,  of  course,  antagonistic  to  love.  Children  naturally 
recognize  authority,  however  much  they  may  strive  to  evade  or  defy  it; 


108  LYCEUM  —  MANNERS 

and  its  just  and  rightful  exercise  does  not  interfere  with  their  warmest 
affections  toward  parents  and  teachers.  Hence,  love  is  not  to  be  inspired 
by  making  improper  concessions  to  children,  for  these  they 
in^ire  construe  into  weakness,  which  they  despise.  Minute  directions 
loce  .  ^''i^y  be  given  for  the  winning  of  the  pupil's  affections,  but 
these  would  be  either  unnecessary  or  futile.  Love  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  can  alone  produce  love  in  the  hearts  of  the  pupils.  He 
cannot  put  on  a  semblance  of  affectionate  regard  for  his  pupils;  he  must 
feel  it.  Children  have  naturally  deep  intuitions  into  character,  and  detect 
hypocrisy  almost  instantly;  hence  they  at  once  discern  whether  there  is 
any  real  affection  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  toward  themselves,  or  only  a 
mere  pretense.  Love  will  show  itself  in  his  appearance,  his  words,  his 
manners;  every  tone  of  his  voice  will  indicate  it,  if  it  exist,  and  the 
pleasant  smile  beaming  habitually  from  his  countenance  will,  while  making 
his  own  labors  pleasant  and  easy,  make  light  the  hardest  tasks  of  his 
l)upils,  by  exciting  their  ambition  and  determination  to  accomplish  it. 
The  teacher  should,  however,  never  forget  the  relation  existing  between 
him  and  his  pupils.  "Some  teachers',  says  Hart  {la  the  Sc/tool-Eoom, 
I'hila.,  1HG8),  "  in  avoiding  a  hard,  repulsive  manner,  run  to  the  ojiposite 
extreme,  and  lose  the  respect  of  their  scholars  by  undue  familiarity. 
Children  do  not  expect  you  to  become  their  playmate  ami  fellow,  before 
giving  you  their  love  and  confidence.  Their  native  tendency  is  to  look 
tip.     They  yearn  to  repose  upon  one  sui)erior  to  themselves''. 

The  ability  to  infuse  a  love  of  study  into  the  minds  of  his  pupils  is  the 
characteristic  of  a  thorougldy  successful  teacher.  'J'his  is  the  basis  of 
diligence,  which  is  but  another  name  for  love.  "There  is  no  higher 
liygienic  law",  says  Baldwin  {ScJiuvl  JJa/iageme/d) ,  "than  to  love  with  otir 
whole  soul,  and  to  work  with  all  our  might".     (See  Dh^ice.nc  e.) 

LYCEUM  ((j!r.A/'/v(/oi',  named  after  the  neighboring  temple  of  Apollo, 
'/.'rKtior,  a  surname  which  is  differently  explained  by  (jlreek  etymologists), 
a  gymnasium  or  public  i)alestra  with  covered  walks,  in  the  eastern  suburb 
of  Athens,  where  Aristotle  and  the  ])hilosophers  of  his  school  taught.  In 
Lngland  and  in  the  United  States,  the  word  is  not  applied  to  any  class  of 
schools,  but  is  sometimes  given  to  literary  associations. 

MANNERS,  the  genuine  or  simulated  manifestations  of  disposition 

towards  each  other,  which  occur  in  the  intercourse  of  human  beings.     The 

.  .       ordinary  use  of  the  word  manners  restricts  it  to  those  personal 

^/"'"'O"'  and  visible  peculiarities  of  deportment  which  characterize  the 
intercour.se  mentioned.  'J'he  agents  commonly  employed  for  this  purpose 
are  the  eye,  the  voice,  language,  and  gestttres.  When  persons  are  brought 
together  withotit  previous  knowledge  of  each  other,  or  with  no  conmion 
ground  of  taste  or  experience  between  them,  custom  has  prescribed  a 
conventional  code  of  formal  manners,  characterized  as  etiquette,  which 
serves  to  relieve  the  awkwardness  of  the  situation.     That  this, 

.  iqur  e.  }^^Jy^■(.y^,J.^  [^  temporary  in  character,  and  not  intended  to  survive 
its  original  uses,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  after  it  lias,  in  great  measure, 
been  laid  aside,  any  attempt  to  revive  it,  as  the  exclusive  medium  of  kindly 
expression,  is  regarded  as  a  just  cause  for  re-scntujcnt.  The  fugitive  character 
of  mere  ctiipiette  can  never  constitute  it  an  ccpiivalent  for  that  abiding 


MARKING  199 

kindliness  of  disposition  which  finds  expression  in  genuine  politeness. 
Manners,  therefore,  are  more  decidedly  moral  in  their  nature  than  a  super- 
ficial observation  would  lead  us  to  suspect;  hence  the  usual  association  of 
.  "morals  and  manners  ".  The  basis  of  agreeable  manners  is  that 
•  humanity,  or  feeling  of  brotherhood,  which,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  pervades  the  human  race,  and  which  every  century,  by  its  multi- 
plied means  of  communication,  is  tending  to  extend  and  strengthen.  It 
is,  therefore,  essentially  Christian;  and  pleasant  manners  may  be  regarded, 
not  as  an  accomplishment  merely,  but  as  one  of  the  legitimate  ends  of  a 
thorough  education.  In  social  intercourse,  agreeable  manners  are  far  more 
powerful  than  intellectual  accomplishments;  while  the  displeasure  produced 
by  rude  manners  often  neutralizes  moral  worth,  and  renders  mental  acqui- 
sitions, however  great,  comparatively  useless.  Momentous  issues  —  even 
the  destiny  of  a  lifetime  —  may  hang  upon  the  apparently  unimportant 
question  of  manners.  To  educate  thorouglily,  therefore,  and  neglect  the 
means  by  which  that  education  is  to  be  made  effective,  is  self-evident  folly. 
Beyond  the  ordinary  rules  of  etiquette,  no  set  rules  can  be  given  for  the 
production  of  good  manners;  since,  in  addition  to  the  moral  basis  above 
referred  to,  they  are  largely  dependent  upon  temperament;  but,  no  precept 
is  half  so  powerful  in  the  furtherance  of  this  end,  as  the  daily 
example  ^-^^^-i^plQ  of  the  teacher,  the  parents,  or  other  persons  with  whom 
the  pupil  is  brought  into  daily  contact.  The  indirect  though 
constant  insistence  upon  the  claims  of  every  individual  to  respect  and 
kindly  attention,  which  results  in  a  practical  recognition  of  this  by  the  pu- 
pil, together  with  the  daily  example  referred  to,  constitute,  perhaps,  the 
most  effective  method  for  the  grafting  of  agreeable  manners  on  the  conduct 
of  the  pupil.    (See  Moral  Education'.) 

MARKING,  as  a  means  of  briefly  and  definitely  stating  or  register- 
ing the  character  of  the  recitations  or  examinations  of  pupils,  is  one 
_, .  of  the  most  important  of  the  teacher's  instrumentalities,  if 

•^^'^  ■  justly  and  judiciously  employed.  Although  the  pupU  is  not  to 
receive  the  impression  that  he  is  to  study  merely  to  obtain  good  marks, 
but  for  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  study  itself;  yet,  in  the  imma- 
ture development  of  motives  in  the  child's  mind,  secondary  motives  or 
special  incentives  are  usually  indispensable,  in  order  to  stimulate  to  exer- 
tion or  arouse  ambition.  These  secondary  incentives  are  to  be  used  by 
the  teacher  with  great  care,  avoiding  excess  and  watching  their  influence 
upon  the  pupil's  mind,  for  different  dispositions  are  affected  by  them  in 
very  different  ways. 

Marking,  in  the  hands  of  a  judicious  teacher,  is  a  great  help,  and  when 
kept  within  due  limits,  is  as  salutary  to  the  pupil  as  it  is  useful  to  the 
teacher.     Still  it  should  never  be  regarded  as  other  than  an 
'vahle      expedient,  and  as  subordinate  to  the  creation  of  the  true  mo- 
tives.    Its  special  value  is  in  the  definiteness  with  which  it 
records  (1)  the  character  and  value  of  the  pupil's  work,  (2)  his  standing  as 
compared  with  other  pupils,  and  (3)   the  approval  or  disapproval  of  the 
teacher.     This  very  definiteness,  however,  may   be  the  means  of  gi-eat 
injury,  if  it  is  not  applied  with  strict  justice.     When  its  appli- 
applied^  cation  is  based  on  correct  principles  or  criteria  known  to  both 
teacher  and  pupils,  and  these  principles  are  strictly  adhered  to, 


200  MATHEMATICS 

without  the  least  partiality,  the  marking  system  is  divested  of  most  of  the 
objections  which  have  been  urged  against  it;  because,  while  it  presents  a 
definite  recognition  and  reward  of  merit  and  success,  it  does  not  absolutely 
discourage  the  less  deserving  and  talented. 

An  absolute  standard  of  excellence  or  proficiency  is,  on  the  whole,  to 
be  preferred  to  a  varying  one;  since  while  the  latter,  recognizing  the 
diversities  of  talent  among  the  pupils,  and  being  based  on  the 
Standard.  ^^j.^^[  consideration  of  diligence  and  effort,  is  more  just  in  itself 
as  a  criterion  of  merit,  it  nevertheless  can  by  no  means  give  as  good  satis- 
faction to  the  ]>upila  as  the  former,  which  recognizes  only  the  actual 
achievement  of  the  pupil,  without  rencard  to  diversities  in  intellectual 
endowment.  The  latter  cannot  be  considered  by  the  pupils;  nor  is  it  safe 
to  treat  one  class  of  pupils  as  if  they  were  incapacitated  to  perform  the 
same  tasks  as  their  scliool-mates  of  the  same  grade  or  class,  since  that,  in 
itself,  would  be  a  degradation  and  a  discouragement.  It  is  better  to  let 
them  learn  this  fact  by  experience  in  competing  with  the  more  talented 
for  the  attainment  of  a  common  standard. 

The  teacher  is  not  to  degenerate  into  a  mere    "marking  machine"  in 

the  use  of  this  system.     While  employing  it  for  the  purpose  of  justly 

recording  the  success  or  failure,  merit  or  demerit,  of  his  pupils, 

Caution   ]^q  jg  to  encourage,  to  aid  by  explanation,  sometimes  specially 

teacher     directed  to  the  inferior  minds,  and  thus  strive  to  equalize  the 

difficulties  to  be  mastered.     Before  all  things  he  must  study  his 

pupils,  and  be  guided  by  their  respective  traits  of  character.     To  this  the 

marking  should  be  subsidiary. 

The  scale  most  frequently  adopted  for  marking  is  that  of  percentage, 
100  indicating  the  highest  degree  of  merit  or  excellence;  and  perhaps  this 
is  the  most  convenient  for  the  purpose.  —  See  Baldwin,  Art  of  School 
3Ianar/oinent  (N.  Y.,  1881). 

MATHEMATICS.  —  The   terra   mathematics   is   the    Latin   word 
mathemaiica,  or  the  Greek  word  fiai^r/fiariKa,  anglicized.    The  Greek  word 
was   derived   from  /lavi^avu,  to  learn;  whence  fidSr/aic,  learti- 
Befinition.  ^^^^^     ^^^.i^  ^-^^  Greeks  and  the  Romans  used  the  word  mathe- 
matica  as  we  do  the  word  matheimctics.     The  use  of  the  plural  form  in- 
dicates that  this  department  of  human  knowledge  was  formerly  considered 
not  as  a  single  branch,  but  as  a  group  of  several  branches,  much  as  we  use 
the  phrase  the  mathematical  sciences.     This  group  of  sciences  is  subdivided 
into  pure  mathem,atics  and  mixed,  or  applied,  m'lihemalics.     In 
Nation     *^^^  article  we  are  concerned  mainly  with  the  former.  —  The 
brunches  of  pure  mathematics  lira  arilhinetir:,  a'gebra,  the  cal- 
culus, and  geometry.   In  this  classification,  the  calculus  is  made  to  include 
the  infinitesimal  calculus,  the  calculus  of  finite  differences,  and  the  calcu- 
lus   of  variations;  while  geometry  inclwdcs,  th.Q  common  ov  special  geom- 
etry, general    {analytic)    geometry,  descriptive  geometry,   trigonometry^ 
conic  sections,  and  the  new  science  of  quaternions. 

No  attempt  to  give  a  philosophical  definition  of  the  department  of 

knowledge  embraced  under  the  term  mMhematics,  has  as  yet  been  so  success- 

"What  the  ^^1  *3  ^  b^  generally  accepted.     The  statement  that  "  mathe- 

term     matics  is  the  science  of  quantity"  is  often  flippantly  repeated  as 

embraces,  a  definition,  but  it  can  scarcely  serve  for  that  purpose.      Comte 


MATHEMATICS  201 

defines  mathematical  science,  as  the  science  which  has  for  "  its  object 
the  indirect  measurement  of  magnitudes,  and  constantly  proposes  to 
determine  certain  magnitudes  frmn  others,  hi/  means  of  the  precise 
relations  existing  between  them".  It  is  not  a  little  singular  that,  while  this 
great  thinker  rules  geometry  out  of  the  realm  of  pure  mathematics,  he 
bases  his  definition  of  the  science  exclusively  on  the  geometrical  conception. 
That  he  does  so  is  especially  apparent  in  the  discussion  from  which  he  de- 
duces the  definition.  ISIoreover,  it  is  not  clear  how  the  abstract  principles 
of  the  science  can  be  included  in  this  definition.  Such  propositions  as, 
"The  product  of  the  multiplicand  and  the  multiplier  is  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  products  of  the  parts  of  the  multiplicand  into  the  multiplier"; 
"  The  root  of  the  product  of  several  quantities  equals  the  product  of  their 
like  roots";  "  The  bisector  of  any  angle  of  a  triangle  divides  the  opposite 
side  into  segments  which  are  proportional  to  the  adjacent  sides";  etc.,  are 
scarcely  embraced  in  Comte's  definition  without  an  unjustifiable  extension 
of  the  signification  of  its  terms.  We  propose  the  following  definition: 
Pu)-e  matheinatics  is  a  general  term  applied  to  several  branches  of  science 
which  have  for  their  object  the  investigation  of  the  properties  and  relations 
of  quantity  —  comprehending  number,  and  magnitude  as  the  result  of  ex- 
tension —  and  of  form.  It  will  be  observed  that  this  definition  embraces 
that  of  Comte,  inasniuch  as  the  measurement  of  quantities,  or  the  determi- 
nation of  unknown  from  known  quantities,  is  effected  by  an  investigation  of 
their  relations;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  can  scarcely  say  that  all  investiga- 
tions of  the  relations  of  quantities  are  for  the  purposes  of  measurement,  or 
of  determining  unknown  quantities  from  known. 

But  the  chief  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  inquire  as  to  the  place  which 

mathematical  studies  should  occupy  in  our  courses  of  elementary  instruction . 

.      In  such  an  inquiry,  the  leading  considerations  are,  (I)  For  what 

education    V^^]?^^'^    should    these  studies  be  pursued   in  such   courses  ? 

(II)  To  what  extent  should  they  be  pursued?  and  (III)  What 
general  principles  should  govern  our  methods  of  teaching  ? 

I.  Mathematical  studies  should  be  pursued  in  elementary  schools  pri- 
marily as  a  means  of  mental  discipline.  Notwithstanding  all  that  Sir  Will- 

iam  Hamilton  has  said,  and  the  formidable  array  of  names  which 
MscivUne    ^^  adduces  in  support  of  his  views,  it  may  still  be  claimed  that 

there  is  no  single  line  of  study  pursued  in  schools,  which  develops 
the  mind  in  so  many  ways,  and  is  so  well  adapted  to  every  stage  of  mental 
growth,  as  mathematical  studies.     It  has  been  asserted,  and  quite  generally 

conceded,  that  the  power  of  observation  is  not  developed  by 
nation     J^^-thematical  studies;  while  the  truth  is.  that,  from  the  most 

elementary  mathematical  notion  which  arises  in  the  mind  of  a 
child  to  the  farthest  verge  to  which  mathematical  investigation  has  been 
pushed  and  applied,  this  power  is  in  constant  exercise.  By  observation,  as 
here  used,  can  only  be  meant  the  fixing  of  the  attention  upon  objects  (phys- 
ical or  mental)  so  as  to  note  distinctive  peculiarities  —  to  recognize  resem- 
blances, differences,  and  other  relations.  Now,  the  first  mental  act  of  the 
child  recognizing  the  distinction  between  oiie  and  more  than  one,  between 
one  and  two,  two  and  three,  etc.,  is  exactly  this.  So,  again,  the  first  geomet- 
rical notions  are  as  pure  an  exercise  of  this  power  as  can  be  given.  To 
know  a  straight  line,  to  distinguish  it  from  a  curve;  to  recognize  a  triangle 


2U2  :\rATHEMATICS 

;iud  distinguish  the  several  forms  —  what  are  these,  and  all  perceptions  of 
form,  but  a  series  of  observations  ?  Nor  is  it  alone  in  securing  these  fuu- 
damental  conceptions  of  number  and  form  that  observation  plays  so  im- 
portant a  part.  The  very  genius  of  the  common  geometry  as  a  method  of 
reasoning  —  a  system  of  investigation  —  is,  that  it  is  but  a  series  of  obser- 
vations. The  figure  being  before  the  eye  in  actual  representation,  or  before 
the  mind  in  conception,  is  so  closely  scrutinized,  that  all  its  distinctive 
features  are  perceived;  au.x.iliar  lines  are  drawn  (the  imagination  leading 
in  this),  and  a  new  series  of  inspections  is  made;  and  thus,  by  means  of 
direct,  simple  observations,  the  investigation  proceeds.  So  characteristic 
(jf  the  common  geometry  is  this  method  of  investigation,  that  Comte,  per- 
haps the  ablest  of  all  writers  upon  the  philosophy  of  mathematics,  is  disposed 
to  class  geometry,  as  to  its  methods,  with  the  natural  sciences,  as  being 
based  upon  observation.  ISloreover,  when  we  consider  applied  mathematics, 
we  need  only  to  notice  that  the  exercise  of  this  faculty  is  so  essential,  that 
the  basis  of  all  such  reasoning,  the  very  materials  with  which  we  build, 
have  received  the  name  observntlons.  Thus  we  might  proceed  to  consider 
the  whole  range  of  the  human  faculties,  and  find  for  most  of  them  ample 

scope  for  exei'cise  in  mathematical  studies.  Certainly,  the  werwor]/ 

Aemovij.   ^^jj^   ^^^^  |^^   found  to  be  neglected.     The  very  lirst  steps  in 

number, — counting,  the  multiplication  table,  etc.,  make  heavy  demands  on 

this  power;  while  the  higher  branches  require  the  memorizing  of  formulas 

which  are  simply  ap])alling  to  the  uninitiated.  So  the  imagi- 
nation     '"''^t'-O'i,  the  creative  faculty  of  the  mind,  has  constant  exercise  in 

all  original  mathematical  investigation,  from  the  solution  of  the 
simplest  problem  to  the  discovery  of  the  most  recondite  principle;  for  it  is 
not  by  sure,  consecutive  steps,  as  many  suppose,  that  we  advance  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown.  The  imagination,  liot  the  logical  faculty,  leads  in 
this  advance.  In  fact,  practical  observation  is  often  in  advance  of  logical 
exposition.  Thus,  in  the  discovery  of  truth,  the  imagination  habitually 
presents  hypotheses,  and  observation  supplies  facts,  which  it  may  require 
ages  for  the  tardy  reason  to  connect  logically  with  the  known.  Of  this 
truth,  mathematics,  as  well  as  all  other  sciences,  affords  abundant  illus- 
trations. So  reniai-kably  true  is  this,  that  to-day  it  is  seriou.sly  questioned 
by  the  majority  of  thinkers,  whether  the  sublimest  branch  of  mathematics 
—  the  iiifiiiiietiimal  calculus  —  has  any  thing  more  than  an  empirical 
foundation,  mathematicians  themselves  not  being  agreed  as  to  its  logical 
basis.  —  'I'hat  the  imagination,  and  not  the  logical  faculty,  leads  in  all 
original  investigation,  no  one  Avho  has  ever  succeeded  in  producing  an 
original  demonstration  of  one  of  the  simpler  projpositions  of  geometry,  can 

have  any  doubt.     Xor  are  iiulucUon,  analogy,  the  scrulinizing 

and°^^  of  P^'eniises  or  the  search  for  them,  or  the  'balancing  of  proba- 

analogy,   bililies^  spheres  of  mental  operation  foreign  to  mathematics.  No 

one,  indeed,  can  claim  a  pre-eminence  for  mathematical  studies 
in  all  these  departments  of  intellectual  culture,  but  it  may,  perhaps,  be 
claimed  that  scarcely  any  de})artment  of  .science  affords  discipline  to  so 
great  a  number  of  faculties,  and  that  none  presents  so  complete  a  gradation 
in  its  exercise  of  these  faculties,  from  the  first  principles  of  the  science  to 
the  farthest  extent  of  its  application,  as  mathematics.  There  are,  however, 
two  respects  in  which,  probably,  special  pre-eminence  maybe  claimed  for 


MATHEMATICS  203 

mathematics  as  a  disciplinary  study;  namely,  training  the  mind  to  the 
habit  of  forming  clear  and  definite  conceptions,  and,  of  clothing  these  con- 
ceptions in  exact  and  perspicuous  language.  This  pre-eminence 
Conception,  arises,  in  part,  from  the  fact  that,  in  this  branch  of  knowledge, 
the  terms  convey  exactly  the  same  meaning  to  all  minds.  Thus,  there  can 
be  no  difference  between  the  conceptions  which  different  persons  have  of 
five,  six,  a  straight  line,  a  circle,  &  perpendicular,  a  product,  a  square  root; 
or  of  the  statements,  that  3  and  5  ??^a^•e  8,  that  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  a 
plane  triangle  is  two  right  angles,  etc.  The  conception  in  each  case  is 
definite,  and  the  language  may  be  perfectly  clear.  That  this  is  not  so  in 
most  other  sciences,  no  one  needs  to  be  told.  Can  we  be  sure  that  all  have 
the  same  conception  of  the  metaphysical  terms  ic/ea,  ^ercepijo?i,?'eason? 
Can  any  one  discriminate  infallibly  between  an  adjective  and  an  adverb; 
between  downy,  hirsute,  dmd. pjubescent'l  Are  the  conceptions  designed  to 
be  conveyed  by  the  terms  schistose,  fissile,  slatt/,  laminar,  foliated, 
squamose,  s,o  distinct  that  no  two  mineralogists  will  ever  interchange  them  ? 
Is  the  meaning  of  a  Greek  text  always  unequivocal  ?  Is  it  an  easy  matter 
for  any  two  persons  to  get  exactly  the  same  conception  of  the  causes  which 
led  to  a  certain  political  revolution ;  can  either  be  absolutely  certain,  from 
any  language  which  he  can  use,  that  no  one  will  mistake  his  conception  ? 
—  That  the  habit  of  mind  which  rests  satisfied  only  with  clear  and  definite 
conceptions,  and  the  power  of  speech  which  is  able  to  clothe  such  concep- 
tions in  language  perfectly  unmistakable,  are  most  important  attainments, 
need  not  be  argued;  and  these  are  exactly  the  ends  which  mathematical 
studies,  properly  pursued,  are  adapted  to  secure.  In  this  hasty  review, 
nothing  has  been  said  directly  of  these  studies  as  a  means  of 
Beasoning.  jgyeloping  the  reasoning  faculties,  since  it  is  generally  conceded 
that  pure  mathematics  is  practical  logic,  and  that  pupils,  who  do  not  learn 
to  reason  by  their  study  of  mathematics,  fail  of  the  most  important  end  of 
such  study. 

Doubtless,  the  connnou  answer  to  the  question,  Why  should  mathe- 
matical studies  be  pui-sued  in  schools,  would  be,/or  tfieir  practical  value; 
by  which  is  meant,  their  direct  application  to  the  affairs  of  life, 
^^"'f^^  as  in  reckoning  bills, computing  interest, measuring  distances, vol- 
umes, areas,  etc.  It  is,  indeed,  true,  that  in  the  every-day  affairs 
of  life,  to  the  accountant,  and  to  the  man  of  business,  a  certain  amount  of 
arithmetical  knowledge  is  essential  —  that  surveying,  civil  engineering, 
mechanics,  navigation,  geography,  and  astronomy,  are  based  on  geometry. 
But,  let  it  be  observed,  that  only  a  special  few  practice  the  arts  last 
named,  and  that  for  the  masses  embraced  in  the  former  specifications,  a 
very  limited  amount  of  arithmetical  knowledge  is  all  that  they  are  required 
to  apply.  And  still  further,  while  it  is,  indeed,  necessary  that  the  business 
man  should  be  able  to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  divide,  and  compute  inter- 
est, skiU  in  these  operations  can  never  form  the  basis  of  practical  success 
in  life,  except  in  the  case  of  mere  clerks.  Many  of  the  most  sagacious 
business  men  would  make  wretched  work  with  their  ledger  columns,  and 
they  know  too  well  their  own  deficiencies  to  risk  themselves  in  any  impor- 
tant numerical  computations.  Indeed,  the  elements  of  practical  success  in 
life  are  quite  other  than  a  specific  knowledge  of  any  branch  of  science 
Avhatever,  however  indisiiensable  a  certain  amount  of  such  knowledge  may 


204  MATHEMATICS 

be  in  particular  callings.  The  conclusion,  therefore,  is  that  the  important 
point  is  not,  how  much  mathematical  knowledge  can  be  crammed  into 
the  minds  of  pupils,  but  by  what  methods  of  teaching  and  study  such 
habits  of  mind  can  be  secured,  as  will  make  the  pupils  most  efficient  in 
performing  the  duties  of  life. 

II.  What  place  should  mathematical  studies  occupy  in  the  course  of 
study  ?  Were  we  to  judge  from  the  practice  of  most  schools,  we  should 
conclude  that  mathematical  studies  ought  to  occupy  from  oue-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  pupil's  time  throughout  his  school  life,  unless,  indeed,  a  slight 
exception  is  to  be  made  in  favor  of  other  studies  for  the  last  two  years  of 
a  college  course;  that  is,  that  reading,  spelling,  writing,  geography, 
grammar,  history,  literature,  rhetoric,  logic,  the  whole  domain  of  natural 
science,  including  the  physical  constitution  of  the  human  system,  chemistry, 
languages,  metaphysics,  political  economy,  —  all  these,  and  whatever  else 
goes  to  make  up  the  furniture,  and  secure  the  discipline,  of  a  well-cultivated 
mind,  are  only  to  receive  as  great,  or  at  most  twice  as  great,  a  part  of  the 
pupil's  time,  as  his  mathematical  studies.  And  this  is  no  exaggeration,  as 
will  be  obvious  from  an  inspection  of  the  curriculum  of  a  graded  school, 

or  college.  For  the  first  six  or  seven  years  of  the  ordinary 
Public  graded  public  school  course,  if  we  include  the  oral  lessons,  in 
school     -fin^YiijQr  and  form,  of  the  lowest  grade,  arithmetic  forms  one  of 

the  three  main  studies  for  the  entire  course;  and,  in  not  a  few 
cases,  there  are  two  arithmetical  exercises,  one  in  mental  (oral),  and  one  in 
written  arithmetic,  or  one  in  arithmetic  and  another  in  algebra,  each  day, 

constituting,  in  such  cases,  fully  one-half  of  the  school  work. 
^lol      During  the  entire  course  of  the  high  or  preparatory  school, 

either  algebra,  higher  arithmetic,  or  geometry  constitutes  one 
of  the  studies,  except  for  a  part  of  one  year;  but  this  exception  is  much 
more  than  made  up  by  the  large  relative  amount  of  time  which  the 
pupil's  mathematical  studies  usually  occupy,  and  by  the  fact  that  not 
unfrequently  some  two  of  these  studios  are  pursued  at  the  same  time.     In 

the  college  couree,  one  of  the  three  regular  studies  for  the  first 
o  rse     *^^°  years  is,  almost  invariably,  mathematics.     So  far,  reference 

has  been  had  exclusively  to  pure  mathematics,  including  only 
arithmetic,  algebra,  and  perhaps  a  little  of  general  (analytical)  geometry 
and  the  calculus.  Whatever  of  applied  mathematics,  including  surveying, 
mechanics,  astronomy,  etc.,  is  to  be  studied,  must  find  additional  time  in 
the  course.  The  question  then  arises,  can  the  legitimate  purposes  for 
which  mathematical  studies  should  be  pursued,  be  secured  in  any  less  time  ? 
In  order  to  answer  this,  let  us  observe  the  exact  proportion  of  time  usually 

given  to  the  pure  mathematics  in  a  course  of  training  extend- 

Time  given  [j^^  throujih  the  ordinary  colletre  course.     Arithmetic  has  from 

tnatics     on^-half  to  one-third  of  the   pupil's   tmie   in  the  elementary 

schools.  In  the  high-school  or  academic  course,  to  obtain  any 
creditable  knowledge  of  algebra,  geometry,  and  plane  trigonometry,  and  to 
review  the  arithmetic,  at  least  one-third  of  the  time  is  consumed.  Passing 
into  the  college  with  this  knowledge  of  mathematics,  the  student  finds 
one-third  of  the  time,  for  the  first  two  years,  scarcely  adequate  to  secure  a 
respectable  knowledge  of  higher  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry,  the 
elements  of  the  general  geometry,  and  the  infinitesimal  calculus;  and 


MATHEMATICS  205 

whatever  of  applied  mathematics  is  learned,  as  of  surveying,  mathematical 
drawing,  mechanics,  astronomy,  etc.,  must  find  a  place  in  the  other  two 
years  of  the  college  course.  Now,  all  this  is  simply  inevitable,  unless  relief 
can  be  found  in  the  course  prior  to  entrance  upon  college  work.  If,  how- 
ever, the  inordinate  demands  of  arithmetic  can  be  so  abridged  (see 
Arithmetic),  that  the  grammar  school  course  shall  include,  at  least, 
eighteen  months'  study  introductory  to  algebra  and  geometry,  the  high 
school  can  save  this  time  for  other  studies,  and  also  secure  such  thorough- 
ness in  preparation,  that  the  student's  course  in  college  will  be  far  more 
rapid  and  satisfactory  than  at  present.  AVith  the  quality  of  preparation 
now  secured,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  student  comes  to  college 
having,  it  is  true,  been  over  the  requisite  amount,  but  with  so  little  of  the 
real  strength  and  knowledge  which  that  course  should  impart,  that,  if  he 
does  justice  to  his  mathematical  studies  for  the  first  two  years,  nearer  one- 
half  than  one-third  of  his  time  is  consumed  upon  them.  By  rigidly  con- 
fining the  study  of  elementary  arithmetic  to  its  proper  domain,  giving  a 
year  in  the  grammar  school  to  an  introduction  to  algebra,  and  half  a  year 
to  the  definitions  and  facts  of  plane  geometry,  the  pupil  may  come  to  the 
high  school  so  thoroughly  prepared  in  the  elements  of  the  three  great 
mathematical  studies,  —  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry,  that  between 
two  and  three  years  in  the  high  school  will  be  amply  sufficient  to  secure 
such  further  proficiency  in  these  branches  as  is  consistent  with  the  course 
here  marked  out.  Moreover,  if  the  pupil's  school  life  closes  with  the 
grammar  school,  the  course  thus  secured  will  be  of  far  more  value  to  him 
in  after  life,  both  for  practical  uses  and  as  a  discipline,  than  the  ordinary 
one.     (See  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Geometry.) 

In  the  above,  it  will  be  observed,  that  the  general  geometry  and  the 
infinitesimal  calculus  axe  included  in  the  college  course.     The  elements  of 
the  former  are  usually  required,  although  it  is  quite  common 
calculus    ^^^^  "°  S^*^*^  reason)  to  make  the  latter  elective.     By  omitting 
the  calculus,  the  graduate  leaves  college  without  ever  having 
looked  into  one  of  the  sublimest  departments  of  human  knowledge,  or 
having  even  the  remotest  idea  of  the  language  and  methods  of  the  mechan- 
ics and  astronomy  of  the  day,  or  being  able  to  read  an  advanced  treatise 
upon  any  scientific  subject  as  treated  by  the  modern  mathematician.     Nor 
can  the  beauty  and  power  of  the  general  geometry  be  appreciated  without 
a  knowledge  of  the  calculus.     Thus  the  pupil  who  is  allowed,  at  his  option, 
to  leave  this  out  of  his  course,  leaves  college  a  hundred  years  behind  his 
time,  in  one  of  the  leading  departments  of  human  knowledge. 

III.  What  general  principles  should  govern  our  viethods  of  teach- 
ing maiheviaiics  ?  —  This  topic  has  been  quite  fully  treated  in  the  separate 
articles  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Geometry,  to  which  reference  is  made. 
It  is  proper  to  add  here,  that,  from  first  to  last,  the  methods 
Methods.  g^jQ^ifj  ^g  gych  as  wiU  give  absolutely  clear  perceptions  and 
conceptions,  and  secure  facility,  accuracy,  and  elegance  in  expression. 
These  ends  are  of  vastly  more  practical  importance  than  the  mere  ability 
"to  get  the  answer"  of  special  problems.  The  notion  which  prevails 
among  some  teachers,  that  if  the  pupil  learns  the  process,  and  becomes 
expert  in  it,  he  has  obtained  every  thing  that  is  essential,  and  that,  what- 
ever of  the  rationale  may  be  desirable  will  be,  in  some  way,  induced  by 


20G  M  ATKICULATE  —  MEMOEY 

this  mechanical  process,  is  an  exceedingly  vicious  one.     In  the  first  place, 

it  is  far  more  important  that  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  comprehend  the 

logic,  and  to   express  his   ideas  in  intelligible  language  than 

Culture.  jjj(,r(;iy  ^q  solve  any  number  of  problems,  since  the  former  ability 
he  will  have  occasion  to  use  every  day  of  his  life,  while  he  may  never  need 
the  latter  at  all.  But  we  are  not  driven  to  the  alternative  of  securing 
culture  at  the  expense  of  mechanical  skill;  the  very  best  means  to  acquire 
expertness  in  mathematical  manipulations  is  that  which  secures  the  best 
results  in  culture.  No  gieater  intellectual  monstrosity  probably  ever  pre- 
sents itself  than  he  who  is  usually  known  as  a  mathematical  genius;  that 
is,  one  who  has  a  wonderful  ability  to  do  what  nobody  else  can  do,  or  cares 
to  do  —  to  solve  knotty  and  often  senseless  mathematical  problems.  On 
the  contrary,  the  object  of  mathematical  study  should  be  to  develop  men 
with  cultured  minds,  not  to  make  them  mere  computing  machines. 

MATRICULATE  (Lat.  matricuhi,  a  public  roll  or  register),  to  admit 
to  member.shi]>  in  a  college  or  university,  by  enrollment. 

MEMORIZING,  committing  to  memory,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  leio-iiing  hy  heart,  generally  implies  repetition  or  rote-learning; 
though  it  need  not  be  without  an  understanding  of  what  is  memorized. 
The  law  of  repetition  has  an  important  application  in  many  processes  of 
instruction  that  are  addressed,  wholly  or  in  part,  to  the  memory.  The 
mere  memorizing  of  words  and  sentences,  in  order  to  produce  a  show  of 
knowledge  is  a  great  abuse.  Children  may,  however,  be  recjuired  to  com- 
mit to  memory  some  statements  which  they  do  not  perfectly  understand, 
such  complete  understanding  requiring  a  more  mature  degree  of  intellect- 
ual development.  •' No  doubt",  says  Caldcrwood  [On  Teacliing,  Edin., 
1874),  "  all  children  njust  commit  to  memory  a  good  many  things  they  do 
not  rightly  understand.  Such  storing  of  the  memory  belongs  less  or  more 
to  all  study",  'i'his  is  the  view  also  of  Thring  [Education  and  School, 
London,  1864):  "There  should  be  a  clear  perception  how  far  it  is  wise  to 
explain,  and  to  proceed  on  the  principle  of  making  a  boy  thoroughly 
understand  his  lessons,  and  how  far  they  should  be  looked  on  as  a  mere 
collecting  of  material  and  a  matter  of  memory.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  with  the  young,  memory  is  strong,  and  logical  perception  weak.  All 
teaching  should  start  on  this  undoubted  fact.  It  sounds  very  fascinating 
to  talk  about  understanding  every  thing,  learning  every  thing  thoroughly, 
and  all  those  broad  plira.ses,  which  plump  down  on  a  difficulty,  and  hide 
it.  Put  in  practice,  they  are  about  on  a  par  with  exhorting  a  boy  to 
mind  he  does  not  go  into  the  water  until  he  can  swim."  The  method 
referred  to  in  this  citation  is  the  other  extreme  from  mechanical  word 
n.emorizing,  and  while  not  as  injurious,  or  as  likely  to  be  adopted,  is 
equally  unphilosophical.  'J'he  extent  to  which  memorizing  is  to  be  carried, 
and  the  branches  of  instruction  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  constitute 
important  subjects  for  the  exercise  of  the  teacher's  judgment  and  intelli- 
gence.     (See  CoxcEKT  TE.\cniXG,  Memory,  and  Eote-Teachixg.) 

MEMORY  is  often  represented  as  a  distinct  faculty  of  the  mind ;  but 

this  may  ilo  harm  in  education.     The  mind  is  one,  and  has  no  separate 

faculties  distinct  from  each  other,  the  term  facidtrj  being  used 

p?'"  -tL  Z^  merely  for  the  sake  of  convenience.     It  is  important  to  turn 
'  away  from  this  mode  of  conception,   and  to  look  at  the  phe- 


MEMORY  207 

nomeua  as  they  arise  in  the  rniud.  An  object  and  a  mind  come  into 
connection.  What  is  the  result?  An  impression  is  produced  on  the 
mind,  or  more  correctly  the  mind  forms  an  impression  of  the  object. 
"What  becomes  of  this  impression  ?  A  new  object  presents  itself,  and  then 
the  impression  disappear  before  the  new  impression  which  the  mind  forms 
of  the  new  object.  Has  the  former  impression  disappeared  altogether  ? 
Xo.  AYe  believe  that,  in  some  way  or  other,  it  still  remains  in  the  mind. 
If  a  similar  object  were  to  come  before  the  mind,  it  would  be  conscious 
that  it  had  formed  an  impression  of  it  before,  and  the  two  impressions 
would  blend  into  one.  We  have  here,  then,  a  peculiar  power  of 
Fower  of  ^1^3  miu^i  to  retain  what  it  has  once  had;  and  this  power  does 
to  retain.  ^*^^  ^PP^J  merely  to  perceptions  or  other  intellectual  acts,  but 
to  feelings  and  desires.  A  longing  for  an  object  has  been 
aroused  within  us.  The  longing  is  displaced  for  a  time  by  some  other 
pressing  passion.  But  the  longing  is  still  in  the  mind;  and  when  the 
appropriate  causes  of  excitation  occur,  the  longing  will  come  back,  and,  it 
may  be,  blend  with  the  new  longing  which  helps  to  awaken  it,  or  repel  the 
new  longing  which  has  aroused  it  by  contrast.  This  then  is  the  first 
feature  of  memory.  The  soul  has  the  power  of  retaining  feelings,  voli- 
tions, perceptions,  and  thoughts.  The  question  has  been  raised,  can  these 
feelings,  volitions,  and  thoughts  entirely  and  absolutely  vanish  from  the 
mind  ?  A  categorical  auswer  cannot,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  be  given 
to  this  question;  but,  certain  facts  render  it  likely  that  the  mind  retains 
every  thing,  and  that  it  is  merely  the  power  of  resuscitation  which  is 
defective.  Many  circumstances  which  seem  to  have  been  entirely  for- 
gotten, are,  under  peculiar  conditions,  recalled  to  the  memory.  It  is  said 
that  often,  when  persons  have  been  drowning,  they  have  seen,  as  in  a  rapid 
vision,  their  past  life  in  multitudinous  details  which  they  had  entirely  for- 
gotten. People,  in  diseases  of  the  brain,  have  remembered  languages, 
which  they  had  learned  in  early  days,  but  which  they  seemed  to  have  lost 
completely.  Facts  like  these  point  to  the  indestructibiUty  of  that  which 
has  once  had  a  place  in  the  soul. 

But,  besides  the  power  of  retention,  there  is  the  other  power  of  repro- 
duction;  and  it  is  to  this  power  that  the  educator  has  to  direct  his  at- 
tention.   What  are  the  means  of  strengthening  the  reproductive 
Poirer  of  povrer  of  the  minds  of  children?     We  have  to  look  at  the  con- 
'%'/o?t"*^'  ditions  of  its  exercise;  and,  in  this  connection,  we  must  consider 
the  four  following  principles:  (I)  It  is  plain  that  the  impression 
will  be  reproducible  in  proportion  to  the  strength  and  vivacity  with  which 
it  is  first  made.     This  strength  depends  partly  on  the  natural  capacity 
of  the  child,  partly  on  whether  the  stimulus    in  the  object    is  such  as 
to  produce  a  strong  impression.      The  educational  inferences  from  this 
/statement  are  numerous.    Thus  it  follows  that  wherever  a  real   object 
'can   be  presented  to  a   child,  it  should  be  used  in  preference   to   any 
picture  of  it,  and  that  a  picture  of  it  is  better  than  a  mere  verbal  descrip- 
tion.    Moreover,  if  more  than  one  sense  can  be  employed,  so  much  the 
better.     If  any  object  is  to  be  remembered,  the  child  will  remember  more 
easily,  if  he  can  touch,  smell,  or  taste  it,  as  well  as  see  it.     This  arises 
partly  from  the  fact  that  these  direct  sensations  produce  strong  impressions, 
but  partly  also  from  what  we  call  our  second  principle  of  memory,      (II) 


208  MEMORY 

Every  means  should  be  used  to  concentrate  the  attention  on  the  object. 
If  we  wish  to  make  a  child  remember  au  object,  the  object  must  be  allowed 
to  lie  before  the  child's  eye  or  mind  for  some  time.  In  the  perception  of 
every  object  the  process  is  somewhat  as  follows:  the  perception  or  sen- 
sation has  first  to  displace  the  preceding  perception  or  sensation.  It  then 
gathers  strength  and  occupies  for  a  time  the  whole  mind.  But,  soon  after, 
another  object  of  perception  or  of  thought  presents  itself;  and  the  mind 
will  occupy  itself  with  this.  This  new  perception  will  weaken,  and  finally 
expel,  the  other.  Each  perception  is  connected  with  two  other  perceptions 
or  mental  acts  —  with  the  one  which  it  expels  and  the  one  by  which  it  is 
expelled.  Now,  the  power  of  reproducing  the  mental  act  depends  not 
merely  on  the  strength  with  which  the  act  is  executed  at  its  central  moment, 
but  also  on  the  strength  of  the  connections  which  it  may  form  with  the 
antecedent  and  subsequent  acts ;  and  this  strength  depends  partly  on  the 
time  and  attention  with  which  they  can  be  kept  together  in  the  mind;  for, 
in  every  mental  act,  there  are  subsidiary  simultaneous  acts  which  scarcely 
reach  the  point  of  consciousness.  For  instance,  when  I  examine  a  house, 
there  is  some  slight  perception  of  the  intermediate  space  between  me  and 
the  house,  of  the  objects,  such  as  trees,  which  may  be  in  that  space,  and  of 
the  sky  which  is  overhead.  These  pass  from  the  one  definite  perception 
to  the  other,  and  iu  a  latent  state  help  to  recall  the  one,  when  we  get  the 
other.  The  strength  of  the  connection  is  increased,  if  there  be  a  natural 
connection  between  the  two  mental  acts,  such  as  that  of  cause  and  effect, 
means  and  end,  or  if  there  be  some  points  of  resemblance  between  them, 
or  some  jwints  of  contrast.  But,  in  all  cases,  time  must  be  given  to  let 
these  points  of  resemblance  or  contrast  flow  over,  as  it  ware,  from  the 
one  to  the  other,  'i'he  danger  to  which  the  educator  is  here  exposed, 
is  that  of  attempting  to  do  too  much  and,  therefore,  doing  what  he  does 
too  hurriedly.  He  must  be  patient.  He  must  try  to  intensify  the 
impression  by  allowing  the  various  senses  to  deal  with  it,  and  he  can 
thus  concentrate  attention  longer  on  it  than  he  could  otherwise  do.  And 
he  must,  as  far  as  possible,  bring  only  two  objects  or  two  ideas  at  a 
time  before  the  pupil's  mind.  'J'hese  should  be  held  together  for  some 
time;  and  they  should,  if  it  is  possible,  be  naturally  connected.  Of  course, 
there  are  occasions  in  which  this  is  neither  possible  nor  advantageous. 
There  are  some  occasions  iu  which  the  teacher  must  pass  over  a  good  deal 
of  matter  in  a  short  time.  He  does  not  wish  his  pupil  to  remember  the 
whole,  nor  would  it  be  good  for  the  pupil  to  do  so;  but  these  cases  should 
be  limited  to  those  of  necessity.  And  a  warning  should  be  given  against  the 
danger  of  indulging  too  much  in  reading  books  which,  awakening  the  in- 
terest strongly  and  thus  disturbing  the  nervous  system,  do  not  demand  of 
the  reader  an  accurate  recollection.  This  is  specially  true  of  novels.  The 
frequent  and  rapid  reading  of  these  works,  in  which  the  reader  has  no  stim- 
ulus and  no  occisiou  to  remember  the  incidents  accurately,  fills  the  mind 
Avith  a  great  number  of  vague  memories.  These  memories  render  indistinct 
what  ought  to  be  distinct,  for  they  aljstract  so  much  of  the  valuable  power 
that  the  mind  possesses  for  reproduction;  and  the  habit  of  reading  with- 
out caring  to  remember,  is  apt  to  transfer  itself  to  the  books  and  acta 
which  ought  to  have  the  closest  attention.  (IH)  There  must  be  fre- 
quent repetition.     An  object  or  thought  is  reproducible  easily,  when  it 


MEMORY  209 

has  been  made  to  occupy  a  large  space  in  the  mind.  The  power  of  repro- 
duction is  limited  by  time,  and  the  mind  can  only  reproduce  within  cer- 
tain limits  in  this  respect.  If,  therefore,  an  object  is  to  be  reproduced, 
the  faded  impression  must  be  renewed;  and  the  renewal  of  the  impression 
strengthens  its  hold.  It  is  thus  that  a  fact  may  become  indelibly  imprinted 
on  the  memory.  The  value  of  the  repetition  cannot  be  overestimated ,  but 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  it  wearisome.  (IV)  The  power 
of  reproduction  greatly  depends  on  the  state  of  the  health.  That  there 
is  a  very  close  connection  between  this  power  and  the  body,  is  proved 
most  conclusively  by  the  numerous  instances  collected  by  Dr.  Abercrombie, 
in  which  abnormal  states  of  the  brain  were  accompanied  by  abnormal 
developments  of  memory.  When,  therefore,  a  child  forgets,  it  must  not 
be  always  attributed  to  carelessness.  A  child  learns  a  word  on  Monday, 
and  knows  it  with  perfect  accuracy;  but  when  he  comes,  on  Tuesday  morn- 
ing, to  repeat  it,  he  finds  he  cannot.  In  all  probability,  the  impression 
was  too  weak  to  last  a  whole  day,  and  to  resist  the  many  and  more  inter- 
esting ideas  which  have  intervened;  but  the  lesson  is  not  lost.  The  orig- 
inal impression  is  there;  the  teacher  patiently  and  pleasantly  renews  the 
impression;  and  the  old  blends  with  the  new,  and  strengthens,  until  repe- 
tition fixes  it  in  the  mind  forever.  But  it  may  be  merely  a  temporary 
suspension  of  the  child's  power  of  reproduction,  in  consequence  of  illness; 
and  there  is  no  surer  sign  of  latent  disease  than  when  a  child,  generally 
ready  and  quick,  stumbles  and  forgets.  Some  physiologists  go  the  length 
of  affirming  that,  owing  to  the  freshness  of  the  nervous  system,  the  exer- 
cise of  the  memory  should  be  assigned  to  the  morning;  while  other  men- 
tal efforts,  such  as  those  of  imagination,  should  be  reserved  for  the  evening. 
These  four  principles  lead  not  only  to  the  power  of  reproduction,  but  to 
the  power  of  ready  and  accurate  reproduction.  In  order  that  the  mem- 
ory may  embrace  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  it  is  essential  that  the  mind 
should  devote  itself  to  such  a  range  of  subjects.  The  power  of  reprodu- 
cing a  subject  depends  upon  the  frequency  and  strength  with  which  it  has 
come  before  the  mind.  It  is,  therefore,  not  quite  correct  to  say,  that  a 
person  has  a  good  or  a  bad  memory.  Every  one  has  many  kinds  of  mem- 
ory. If  he  has  exercised  his  mind  in  words,  he  will  remem- 
Specifio  ]H,gj,  -words;  if  he  has  given  much  attention  to  numbers,  he  will 
remember  numbers;  if  to  any  other  class  of  ideas,  he  will  re- 
member such  ideas.  But,  however  great  his  practice  in  numbers  may  be, 
that  practice  will  not  enable  him  to  remember  words;  and  the  converse  is 
also  true.  The  teacher  must  carefully  exercise  the  pupil  in  each  group  of 
notions,  if  he  expects  him  to  remember  them  readily  and  accurately.  Per- 
haps, one  of  the  questions  which  deserve  careful  consideration 
What  in  education  is  what  ought  to  be  forgotten.  The  human  mind 
'f*^''^'«e  is  limited  in  its  range,  and  cannot  reproduce  every  thing. 
'  Ought  it  to  put  into  its  store-house  any  thing  that  it  cannot 
hope  to  reproduce?  We  think  that  it  ought.  Where  the  aim  is  to  pro- 
duce in  the  pupil  a  clear  idea  or  notion,  many  particulars  must  be  ad- 
duced which,  studied  attentively  for  a  short  time,  will  render  the  notion 
clear  and  distinct;  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  mind  should  retain  all 
these  particulars.  This  is  the  case,  for  instance,  in  geography.  In  order 
to  form  a  correct  notion  of  a  country,  many  particulars  must  be  carefully 


210  METHODIC^  —  MINERALOGY 

weighed;  but,  after  the  notion  Las  been  attained,  the  pupil  will  wisely 
drop  a  great  deal  of  the  kuowlcdge  -which  he  has  temporarily  mastered, 
deeming  it  enough  to  know  where  he  can  get  the  knowledge  when  he 
wants  it.  Again,  when  the  object  is  to  inculcate  a  great  principle  of 
action,  the  same  course  may  be  pursued.  If,  for  example,  a  teacher  wishes 
to  impress  upon  his  pupils  the  true  idea  of  toleration,  he  may  choose  many 
incidents  in  history  to  bring  it  home  to  their  minds,  and  may  go  into  the 
minutest  details  of  these  incidents  in  order  to  awaken  interest;  but  he 
succeeds  in  his  purpose,  if  he  leaves  a  strong  and  accurate  general  im- 
pression, even  though  the  pupil  forgets  most  of  the  details  which  have  been 
given  him.  The  power  of  forgctfulness  is  one  that  can  also  be  directed, 
as  well  as  the  power  of  reproduction.  It  is,  indeed,  true  that  the  greater 
the  effort  to  forget  any  thing,  the  more  surely  is  it  impressed  on  the  mem- 
ory; but  this  holds  true  mainly  iu  those  matters  in  which  there  is  a 
strong  personal  element;  and  just  as  a  man  who  sleeps  in  a  room  where  a 
clock  strikes  can  make  up  his  mind  not  to  take  any  notice  of  the  striking 
of  the  clock  in  his  sleep,  so,  in  the  impersonal  matters  of  the  intellect,  we 
can  make  up  our  minds  to  let  such  and  such  facts  fall  into  oblivion.  Kant 
distinguished  memory  as  the  mechanical,  the  iugeniuus,  and  the  judicious. 
The  mechanical  is  employed  when  the  only  bond  of  connection 
CrrmmitHng  ^^^  that  the  two  things  are  in  the  mind  at  the  same  time,  the 
to  memorj.  ^^^^  junaediately  succeeding  the  other.  This  is  what  is  called 
committing  to  memory,  or  learning  by  heart.  .Such  kind  of  memory  must 
be  frequently  used  iu  early  education.  It  is  important  for  the  teacher  to 
note  its  character.  It  depends  on  simultaneity  and  succession,  and  any  dis- 
turbance of  these  circumstances  disturbs  the  memory, 
METHODICS.     See  Didactics. 

MINERALOGY.  Under  the  head  oi  vuue7-al  substances,  or  those 
which  constitute  the  mineral  kingdom,  arc  included  aU  inorganic  bodies; 
that  is  to  say,  by  strict  definition,  all  substances  that  are  not  the  products 
of  life.  AVhile  in  its  severely  scientific  aspects  this  subject  properly  belongs 
to  advanced  education,  as  a  sequel  to  other  departments  of  science,  yet  as 
embracing  the  study  of  natural  objects,  it  may,  like  botany,  be  pursued  as 
a  branch  of  elementary  object  instruction.    When  taught  in  this 

Place  in  ^^^^  ^^^  primarily  as  a  means  of  cultivating  the  observing  fac- 
e  uca  ion.  ^^^-^^g^  ^j^^  ^^^^^^  principles  should  guide  it  as  one  apphcable  to 
that  kind  of  teaching;  and  especially  should  the  teacher  endeavor  to  lead 
the  pupil  tu  discover  for  himself  the  qualities  of  every  specimen  examined, 
and  impart  nothing  that  can  be  thus  discovered.  'Jlie  pupil  will  then 
search  for  similar  specimens,  and  be  able  to  write  out  tlieir  characteristics. 
The  schedule  system,  is  applicable  to  this  subject  its  well  as  to 

Schedule  ^jotany.  (See  Botany.)  Thus  a  regular  fornuda  should  be 
sys  em.  q^^q-^iq^^  noting  form,  slrudure,  cleavage,  liardness,  u-cight, 
color,  h/ster,  etc.]  and  every  term  should  bo  carefully  explained  as  an 
addendum  to  the  pupil's  observation.  A  small  cabinet  of  mineralogical 
specimens  is  an  almost  indispensable  requisite  for  carrying  on  this  instruc- 
tion. Minerals,  regarded  merely  as  the  materials  of  which  the  earths 
crust  is  composed,  offer  examples  of  so  many  ]ihysical  properties  that  come 
under  tlie  cognizance  of  the  senses,  either  unaided  or  aided  by  the  simplest 
cxi)eriments,  that  they  afford  excellent  material  for  this  kind  of  teaching. 


MISCHIEVOUSNESS  211 

They  present  these  properties  in  the  simplest  conditions,  uncomplicated, 
as  in  vegetable  or  animal  materials,  by  the    effects  of  vitaUty;  and  they 

are  superior  to  artificial  objects  for  objective  teaching,  because,  if 
Objective  rightly  used,  they  may  be  made  to  elucidate  all  that  can  be  elu- 
ieaching.  ^^^^^^  ^jy  the  former,  whilst  they  become,  in  addition,  founda- 
tion stones  upon  which  a  more  advanced  and  scientific  study  may  be  satis- 
factorily based.  In  this  manner,  they  may  be  used  to  inculcate,  in  its  most 
elementary  form,  a  scientific  method  of  research.  Thus,  by  means  of  the 
physical  characters  of  minerals,  observation,  accurate  as  far  as  our  unaided 
senses  can  make  it,  and  exactness  of  thought,  and  consequently  of  speech, 
may  be  cultivated  in  regard  to  extei'nal  form,  internal  structure,  color, 
dUtphaneiti/,  luster,  hardness,  tenacity,  fracture,  etc.  Observations,  element- 
ary it  is  true,  but  still ofafundamentalcharacter,regardings/)ec//ic5'rar/ij/, 
solubility,  smdfusibilily,  may  be  induced  by  simple  experiments  with  the 
balance,  the  test-tube,  and  the  blowpipe.  Such  knowledge,  acquired  from 
the  common  minerals  around  us,  will  undoubtedly  be  a  valuable  stepping- 
stone  to  further  acquisitions.  At  a  later  stage,  if  practicable,  instruction 
in  the  use  of  the  blowpipe  might  be  made  to  yield  a  further  insight  into 
simple  chemical  phenomena,  and,  if  carried  far  enough,  might  be  made  an 
excellent  starting-point  for  systematic  scientific  investigation  by  analysis. 
In  connection  with  mineralogy,  attention  should  be  given  to  lithology, 
or  the  science  of  mineral  aggregates,  or  rocks.     This  subject  presents  many 

points  of  interest  both  from  a  scientific  and  an  educational  point 
Lithologij.  ^j  view;  and  in  its  connections,  on  the  one  hand,  with  geology, 
and,  on  the  other,  with  mineralogy,  affords  the  materials  for  practical 
study  as  well  as  useful  mental  culture,  thus  constituting  an  element  of  both 
technical  and  liberal  education.  The  works  necessary  to  the  general  reader 
for  reference  on  topics  of  mineralogy  and  lithology  are  few;  and  those  only 
are  here  named  that  are  perfectly  accessible.  See  Cyclopoidia  of  Education. 
MISCHIEVOUSNESS,  as  applied  to  the  disposition  of  a  child,  or 
school  pupil,  is  the  occasional  transgression  of  an  established  rule  in  a  play- 
ful spirit,  but  without  a  malicious  intention.  This  disposition  is  usually 
the  result  of  the  union  of  humor,  or  love  of  fun,  with  sound  bodily  health. 
The  exuberance  of  spirits  thus  produced  generally  finds  vent  in  actions 
which  are  denominated  mischievous.  This  spirit  is  so  widely  different 
from  the  willful  breaking  of  rules  with  an  evil  intent,  that  the  easy  sup- 
pression of  a  continued  exhibition  of  it  rests  entirely  with  the  teacher;  the 
good  nature  with  which  the  mischievous  act  is  accompanied  generally  caus- 
fng  the  perpetrator  to  desist  on  a  slight  warning.  To  bring  the  mis- 
chievous spirit  under  speedy  control,  two  qualities  only  are  necessary  in 
the  teacher:  —  quick  discernment  of  its  real  nature,  and  tact  in  correcting 
it.  The  want  of  these  sometimes  leads  to  needless  irritation  on  both  sides, 
and  may  end  disastrously  to  the  teacher's  influence,  and,  through  that,  to 
the  discipline  of  the  school.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  good  humor  of  the 
transgressor  is  met  by  a  similar  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  the  task 
of  correction  is  usually  easy,  and  causes  no  offense;  while,  in  the  end,  it 
secures  a  respectful  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  If,  however,  the 
mischievous  disposition  is  not  corrected  in  this  way,  it  may  lead  to  vicious 
habits,  which  will  tend  to  undermine,  or  permanently  deprave  the  moral 
character. 


212  MODEL  SCHOOLS  —  MODERN  LANGUAGES 

MODEL  SCHOOLS,  a  term  usually  applied  to  schools  of  practice 
annexed  to  normal  schools,  or  teachers'  seminaries. 

MODERN  LANGUAGES,  in  the  hteral  and  widest  sense  of  the 
term,  are  the  languages  now  in  use,  in  contradistinction  to  those  which 
were  formerly  spoken,  but  are  now  extinct.     Taken  in  this  sense,  the  term 

embraces  the  mother-tongue,  in  which  the  home  education  of  the 
tonquer  ^^^^^  is  conducted,  the  national  or  ruling  language  of  the  country, 

which  is  the  medium  of  instruction  in  the  schools,  and  the  living 
languages  of  foreign  nations.  It  is  the  general  tendency  of  the  age,  to 
make  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  national  language  the  center  and  the 
chief  aim  of  all  school  instruction;  though  it  has  been  demanded,  from  an 
educational  point  of  view,  that  wherever  the  mother-tongue  of  a  large 
portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  is  different  from  that  of  the  national 
language,  its  claims  should  not  be  ignored.  The  admission  of  modem 
.  foreign  languages  into  a  regular  course  of  instruction  is  of 
lauquaqes.  comparatively  recent  date,  and  the  credit  of  having  first  obtained 
'  this  recognition  belongs  to  the  French  language.  Until  very 
recently,  French  has  enjoyed,  in  this  respect,  an  acknowledged  superiority 
over  any  other  language  of  the  globe;  and  it  is  but  recently  that  J]nglish 
and  German  have  to  any  considerable  extent  begun  to  compete  with  it. 
At  present,  French,  English,  and  German  are  studied  all  over  the  world,  as 
the  chief  representatives  of  modern  culture.  The  Italian  language  is 
learned  by  many  of  the  students  of  fine  arts  and  of  music  in  preference  to 
any  of  the  three  principal  modern  languages;  but  more  in  courses  of 
private  instruction  than  in  schools. 

Since  modern  languages  have  come  to  be  studied  on  a  much  more 
extended  scale  than  the  classical,  a   great  variety  of  methods  have  been 

proposed,  'i'he  authors  of  some  of  these  methods  are  by  no 
ioc  s.  myjjjjg  distinguished  for  modesty,  and  do  not  hesitate  to  declare 
all  former  modes  of  instruction  absolutely  useless,  as  having  been  wholly 
superseded  by  their  own.  In  most  cases,  they  have  wholly  forgotten  that 
the  method  of  teaching  and  learning  a  modern  language  must,  to  a  very 
great  extent,  be  dependent  upon  the  purjwse  for  which  it  is  learned.  If 
the  student  chiefly  aims  to  acquire  the  ability  to  express  his  thoughts  in 
the  language  of  another  person  belonging  to  a  foreign  nation,  the  methods 
which  make  conversation  the  basis  of  instruction  will  justly  commend 
themselves  to  the  attention  of  the  instructor.  AN'lien  a  foreign  language 
is  learned  as  a  means  of  understanding  the  literature  of  a  particular 
nation,  an  early  knowledge  of  the  inflectional  part  of  the  language,  of  all 
its  peculiarities  in  etymology  and  syntax,  and  of  its  vocabulary,  will  be 
felt  as  an  urgent  want;  and  grammar  lcs.sons  connected  with  translating 
exercises,  will  form  the  chief  means  of  instruction.  In  the  combination  of 
grammar  and  translation,  every  possible  method  has  been  tried:  the  strictly 
synthetical,  which  starts  from  the  parts  of  speech,  and  teaches  them  singly, 
before  proceeding  to  a  regular  system  of  translations;  the  strictly  analytical, 
which  begins  with  tlie  analysis  of  foreign  sentences,  and  from  them,  by 
degrees,  derives  the  knowledge  of  grammatical  forms;  and  the  synthetico- 
analytical,  or  analytico-syntiietical,  which,  from  the  flrst,  endeavors  to 
combine  instruction  in  the  grammatical  stru(;ture  with  practice  in  using 
the  foreign  language.     Uf  these,  the  former  may  be  said  to  have  been 


MONITORIAL  SYSTEM  —  MORAL  EDUCATION        213 

almost  entirely  abandoned,  the  latter  being  the  one  generally  preferred 
in  schools.  In  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  the  grammatical  rules,  an 
infinite  variety  may  be  observed  in  the  numerous  grammars  of  modern 
languages.  See  the  article  on  Modern  Languages  in  the  Gyclopcedia,  of 
Education. 

MONITORIAL  SYSTEM,  sometimes  called  the  Madras  system, 
because  it  was  introduced  into  England  from  Madras,  by  Andrew  Bell; 
also  the  Lancasterian  system,  after  one  of  its  most  enthusiastic  advocates, 
Joseph  Lancaster.  It  is,  moreover,  often  designated  the  system,  of  mutual 
instruction,  because  conducted  on  the  principle  of  requiring  the  pupils  of 
a  school  to  teach  each  other.  The  name  monitorial  instruction  is  derived 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  pupil  teachers  employed  to  carry  on  the 
system  -were  called  monitors.  —  For  a  full  account  of  this  system  see  Gy- 
clopcedia of  Educntion. 

MOBAIi  EDUCATION  has  for  its  sphere  of  operation  the  culture 
of  those  principles  which  influence   or  control  the   voluntary  action  of 
human  beings.     The  elements  of  self-control  exist,  in  a  greater 
Sphere.    ^^  |ggg  (jggj-eg^  jn  every  mind,  as  a  part  of  its  original  constitu- 
tion.    They  are  distinct  from  its  intellectual  faculties,  and  need  a  special 
education,  which  is  far  more  important  than  intellectual  education,  be- 
cause it  contributes  in  a  much  higher  degree  to  the  good  both 
Duty.      ^£  ^jjg  individual  and  of  society.     The  subject  of  moral  educa- 
tion  is   duty,  and  its  office  is  both  speculative   and  active;  that  is  (1) 
to  implant  correct  principles  of  rectitude  in  the  pupil's  mind  —  to  teach 
what  duty  is,  and  (2)  to  cultivate  a  desire  to  do  what  is  right  for  its  own 
sake  —  to  respect  duty,  or  moral  obligation;  in  other  words,  to  feel  a  sense 
of  right  —  to  listen  to  the  voice  of  conscience  (q.  v.) ;  to  which  may  be 
added,  as  an  important  additional  object,  to  implant  in  the  youthful  mind 
such  motives  as  wiU  aid  the  moral  sense,  and  enable  it  to  triumph  over  the 
natural  propensities  and  desires,  when  the  latter  are  in  conflict 
l^ed  "^^^^  ^^-     "T^^  means  employed   in  moral    education  are  the 
*  following:  (1)  precepts,  addressed  both  to  the  understanding  and 
to  the  conscience,  the  object  being  to  enlighten  the  latter,  which  of  itself 
does  not  recognize  specific  right  and  wrong;  (2)   example,  appealing  to 
imitation  as  well  as  to  conscience,  and  enforced  by  the  love  and  respect 
felt  by   the  child  toward  its  educator,  leading  the   former   to   feel  that 
whatever  is  done  by  the  latter  is  right,  and  hence  should  be  imitated  (see 
Example);  (3)  habit,  inducing,  by  means  of  repetition,  an  inclination  to 
act  in  the  same  way  under  the  same  circumstances  (see  Habit)  ;  (4)  e.ver- 
cise,  for  the  purpose  both  of  strengthening  the  moral  feelings  brought  into 
.       play,  and  of  forming  habits.     Exercise,  in  moral  education, 
Lxercise.  jgjyg^  ^s  important  as  in  physical  or  intellectual  education; 
indeed,  there  can  be  no  training  or  culture  without  it;  and,  in  carrying 
this  on,  the  teacher  must  avail  himself  of  every  possible  circumstance  that 
arises  in  connection  with  his  intercourse  with  the  pupils,  or  their  inter- 
course with  each  other,  to  give  occasion  for  this  exercise,  and  thus  form  a 
basis  for  the  desired  culture  of  the  moral  faculties.     This  culture  or  train- 
,    ing  must  have  a  twofold  object:  (1)   to  cultivate  virtues,  and 
dbleci       '^  ^^  correct  vices.   Among  the  former,  as  especially  necessary, 
may  be  enumerated  truthfulness,  honesty,  justice,  candor  and 


211  AlonALD^lXO 

modesty,  kindness  or  benevolence,  diligence,  obedience  to  proper  authority, 
gratitude,  fidelity  to  every  promise  or  trust,  and  patriotism;  and  among 
the  latter,  the  opposites  of  these,  as  lying  and  deceit,  a  disposition  to  steal, 
cruelty  to  animals,  unkindness  and  injustice  to  playmates,  violence  and 
combativeness,  ill  temper,  anger  and  irrit<ability,  obstinacy,  laziness,  irreso- 
lution, leading  to  procrastination,  excessive  self-esteem,  leading  to  arrogance 
and  self-conceit,  etc.  'I'hese  are  specific  qualities  of  character  which  need 
a  particular  recognition  and  treatment  on  the  part  of  the  educator;  but 
when  the  moral  sense  has  been  thoroughly  developed,  the  Christian  moral 
l^rinciple,  to  do  unto  others  as  we  would  that  they  should  do  unto  us,  will 
comprehend,  in  approbation  or  condemnation,  every  class  of  actions,  and 
Moral  ^"'"^  ^^^  means  of  a  just  discrimination  as  to  M-hat  is  virtuous 
discipline.  ^^^  '^^'^'^^  ^^  vicious.  But  the  conscience  is  not  developed  in 
■  children;  and  very  often,  not  even  in  adults.  Hence,  the  need 
of  moral  discipline,  in  order  to  afford  to  the  educator  the  means  of  bring- 
ing to  bear  upon  his  pupils  external  restraint,  as  preliminary  to  self- 
restraint;  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  any  government  that  does 
not  contemplate  the  cultivation  of  the  elements  of  .self-control  can 
scarcely  be  considered  as  forming  a  part  of  moral  education.  The  three 
elements  of  sensibility  usually  appealed  to  in  connection  with  moral  dis- 
cipline or  restraint,  are  fear  (q.  v.),  hope  (q.  v.),  and  love  (q.  v.).  (See  also 
AuTHOKiTY.)  The  conscience  being  very  imperfectly  developed  in  child- 
^econdarv  ^"°^'  ^^^°"<^'^^y  motives,  such  as  "the  love  of  approbation,  the 
%notives     ^^"^P?  of  reward,  the  desire  to  excel,  may  properly  be  appealed 

to,  in  order  to  promote  well-doing  on  the  ]»rt  of  the  pupil, 
and  thus  lead  to  the  formation  of  good  habits.  Caution  should  be  exer- 
cised, however,  in  employing  such  incentives;  and  the  educator  should 
always  keep  in  view  the  just  limits  of  their  use,  the  injurious  consequences 
of  depending  too  exclusively  upon  them,  and  the  importance  of  so  employ- 
ing them  that  they  may  lead  on  to  the  primary  motive  —  the  desire  to  do 
right  for  its  own  .^akc.  (See  Emi-lation.)  I'he  practical  application  of 
the  .system  here  briefly  otttlined,  is  attended  with  verj'  great  difficulty,  and 
requires  pectiliar  intelligence  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  educator;  and  not 
alone  this,  but  moral  culture,  involving  self-control,  patience,  and  a  delicate 
appreciation  of  moral  distinctions,  as'  well  as  a  full  sympathy  with  the 
general  peculiarities  and  wants  of  childhood.  To  this  may  be  added,  with 
emphasis,  the  ability  to  discern  the  peculiarities  of  individual  character,  as 
dependent  on  both  mental  and  phy.sical  constitution;  for  the  proces.ses  of 
moral  education  cannot,  like  many  of  those  employed  in  intellectual  train- 
ing, be  applied  to  children  in  large  mas.ses.  Suitable  modifications  must 
be  made  in  the  application  of  general  principles  and  rules,  or  much  injury 
may  be  done.     (See  Discernment  of  Character,  and  Moralizixg.) 

MORALIZING,  the  formal  inculcation  of  moral  truth  by  means  of 

precept,  or  of  stories  related  for  the  sake  of  the  moral,  with  the  view  of 

Its  use     ^°^"^""^'"'g  conduct.     This  practice,  common  in  the  home  circle 

and  in  the  school,  is  the  result  of  a  consciousness  on  the  part  of 
the  parent  or  teacher  of  a  duty  unperformed,  the  discharge  of  which  is 
attempted  in  this  perfunctory  way.  Jt  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  it 
almost  always  fails;  since  it  is  either  an  attempt  to  reason  with  the  young 
—  a  process  for  which  their  minds  are  not  yet  sufficiently  mature  —  or  an 


MUrflO  —  NEWSPAPERS^  '21  ."i 

effort  to  impose  meclianically  on  tlieir  minds  generalizations  which  can 
only  be  reached  naturally  after  the  observation  of  many  individual  in- 
stances. In  either  case,  the  abstract  nature  of  the  appeal  is  so  far  beyond 
their  powers,  that  the  attention  which  is  given,  if  indeed  it  is  given,  is  only 
the  amiable  toleration  of  a  discourse  which  arouses  no  interest.  Of  course, 
moral  lessons  received  in  such  a  spirit  accomplish  no  useful  purpose,  if 
indeed  they  are  not  positively  hurtful;  since  they  tend  to  produce  disgust 
for  an  important  branch  of  education,  which  in  maturer  years,  would  be 
interesting.  The  conceptions  existing  in  the  minds  of  children  and  youth 
being  iu  large  measure  concrete,  the  true  method  of  approaching  their 
intelligence  is  through  concrete  images.  In  intellectual  training,  this  is 
usually  done,  and  is  always  the  most  successful  method.     In  one  of  the 

methods    of  moral  training  above  referred  to  —  that  of  moral 
^orp-^     stories  —  this  is  attempted,  and  doubtless,  it  is  supposed,  with 

success;  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  interest  aroused  is  not  ex- 
tended to  the  moral  deductions  drawn  from  the  acts  of  the  pei-sons  intro- 
duced, but  ends  with  the  acts  or  actors  themselves.  Thus  the  fables  of 
^Esop  are  interesting  to  the  j'oung  only  as  long  as  the  men  and  animals 
are,  so  to  speak,  in  motion.  When  the  moral  is  reached  —  which  is  not  till 
after  the  narrative  has  been  brought  to  a  climax,  and  the  actors  have  been 
dismissed  —  their  interest  is  at  an  ebb;  and  not  till  many  years  later  is 
that  moral  brought  home  to  them  by  the  manifold  experiences  of  life.  This, 
therefore,  is  the  peculiar  value,  and  the  only  proper  use,  of  the  fables  of 
^Esop,  namely,  that  they  present  in  a  striking  way  the  truth  desired  to  be 
impressed  on  the  mind,  not  with  the  design  of  making  it  immediately  in- 
fluential, but  with  an  effort  which,  for  the  moment,  is  apparently 
without  result  —  the  feeling  which  attends  the  planting  of  a  seed,  ?'.  e.,  the 
certainty  of  future  development.     The  mind  of  youth,  in  fact,  is  not  given 

to  that  sober,  contemplative  process  which  we  call  moralizing. 
method     ^^^  natural  disposition  is  one  of  gaiety,  ceaseless  activity,  and 

even  boisterousness.  The  exuberance  of  spirits  natural  to  this 
period  of  life,  therefore,  makes  the  child  indisposed  to  give  patient  attention 
to  any  purely  speculative  process  of  thought.  That  this  is  a  wise  provision 
of  nature  for  the  development  of  the  physical  powers,  has  long  been 
recognized  by  observant  educators;  and  any  attempt  to  curb  this  spirit, 
with  the  view  of  incvilcating  moral  truth,  only  inverts  the  natural  order  of 
development,  and,  in  healthy  children  is  apt  to  result  disastrously.  The 
only  method  of  moral  training  effective  with  youth  is  that  which  discards 
formal  precepts,  and  by  restraint  of  actual  vice,  or  practice  of  the  desired 
virtue,  engrafts  it  insensibly  on  the  daily  conduct.  The  habit  of  right  act- 
ing is  thus  unconsciously  acquired,  but  not  till  a  much  later  period  is  the 
mind  disposed  to  survey  critically  this  action,  and  pass  judgment  upon  its 
propriety.  The  maturity  of  the  mind  is  an  indication  of  the  proper  season 
for  moralizing. 

MUSIC.     See  Singing. 

MUTUAL  SYSTEM.     See  Monitorial  System. 

NEW  EDUCATION".     See  Education. 

NEWSPAPERS.     The  objection  is  frequently  made  to  the  character 
of  the  instruction  ordinarily  imparted  at  school,  that  it  has  little  relation 


216  NEWSPAPERS 

to  the  concerns  of  daily  life.  Tliis  want  of  relation  sprung  originally  from 
the  fact  that  the  literary  class,  in  earlier  times,  was  a  class  apart,  having 

only  slight  connection  with  the  masses  who,  possessing  few  po- 
'^^^^^^^^^"^litical  rights,  were  unworthy  of  consideration.    The  instruction 

given,  therefore,  was  purposely  of  a  kind  to  emphasize  the  ex- 
clusiveness  of  the  educated  class.  Under  the  changed  political  conditions 
of  our  day,  however,  the  tendency  has  steadily  been  to  equalize  the  two 
classes  in  intelligence  —  to  lift  up  the  masses  to  the  level  of  the  educated, 
on  the  one  hand,  and,  on  the  other,  to  bring  the  studies  of  the  school  and 
college  more  into  accordance  with  the  daily  life  of  the  majority.  Traces  of 
the  original  exclusiveness  still  remain,  however,  in  the  unpractical  char- 
acter of  much  of  the  instruction,  imparted  in  school.  Almost  every 
youth,  on  entering  upon  the  business  of  life,  becomes  conscious  of  this 
with  chagrin.  The  arithmetic  that  he  studied,  for  instance,  seems  to  have 
little  application  to  the  concerns  of  daily  life;  the  book-keeping  which  he 
mastered  with  so  much  difficulty,  seems  now,  at  this  later  date,  to  have 
been  filled  with  theoretical  cases  which  have  no  parallels  in  actual  expe- 
rience; even  the  geography,  in  which  he  attained  such  proficiency,  has 
little  place  in  his  daily  routine,  while  algebra,  geometry,  and  many  other 
studies,  have  none  at  all.  The  result  is  a  feeling  of  inferiority  when  he  is 
brought  into  contact  with  others  of  his  age  whose  training  has  been  en- 
tirely that  of  practical  life,  which  leads  him  to  suspect  that  his  time  has 
been  wasted.  Not  till  long  afterwards,  perhaps,  does  he  recognize  the  fact 
that  the  principles  on  which  both  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge  are 
based,  are  the  same,  and  that  the  ability  to  apply  these  principles  was  his 
chief  want.  The  feeling  of  disappointment  referred  to  might  have  been 
entirely  removed,  if,  in  his  instruction,  the  teacher  had  kept  constantly  in 
mind,  not  the  mental  discipline  alone,  but  the  mental  discipline  and  the 

adaptability  to  the  affairs  of  life  of  the  knowledge  used  in  acquir- 
e\  ^"^  ^^  ^°&'  ^^^^^  discipline.     One  of  the  most  useful  instruments  for 

accomplishing  thi.s  double  purpose  is  the  newspaper.  The 
arithmetic  which  is  now  taught  by  the  use  of  unusual  and  improb- 
able examples,  could  be  made  a  living  and  interesting  thing,  by  the  use 
of  problems  to  be  found  in  its  pages,  which  introduce  the  actual  prices  of 
articles  in  daily  use.  Interest,  discount,  exchange,  the  price  of  bonds  and 
stocks,  could  be  made  so  familiar  to  the  pupil  in  this  way,  that  the  change 
from  school  to  counting-house,  which  is  now  attended  with  such  a  want  of 
ease  and  so  nmch  disappointment,  would  seem  but  the  continuation  of 
study  in  another  class.  Reading,  also,  if  taught  from  the  new.spaper, 
would  familiarize  the  pupil  with  the  terms  used  in  the  daily  conversation 
of  professional  and  business  men;  and,  through  the  reports  of  proceedings 
in  every  field  of  human  activity,  fresh  interest  could  be  aroused  in  studies 
already  taken  up,  while  attention  could  profitably  be  called  to  those 
which  are  ordinarily  pursued  in  more  advanced  courses;  and  a  partial  prep- 
aration for  them  could  thus  unconsciously  be  made.  Thus  the  study  of 
geography  would  receive  increased  attention,  if  it  could  be  connected  with 
the  reports  of  the  interesting  events  from  all  parts  of  the  world  which  are 
daily  chronicled,  by  inquiring  into  the  position  on  the  map,  population, 
form  of  government,  etc.,  of  the  different  countries  referred  to.  By  fol- 
lowing, in  this  way,  the  records  of  campaigns  and  battles,  a  knowledge  of 


NORMAL  SCHOOL  217 

the  topography  of  the  country  could  be  obtained  almost  without  effort, 
which  would  be  easily  retained  in  the  memory  of  the  most  apathetic  schol- 
ar; while  opportunity  could,  at  the  same  time,  be  taken  for  digressions 
into  its  history.  Any  means  within  the  teacher's  reach  of  divesting  the 
studies  pursued  of  their  dry,  text-book  character  should  be  taken  advan- 
tage of;  and  this  cannot  be  done  in  any  way  so  easily  as  by  investing  them 
with  a  human  interest,  by  showing  that  men  and  women  similar  to  those 
with  whom  he  daily  associates  are  the  actors  in  all  these  stirring  events. 
For  this  purpose,  hardly  any  medium  is  superior  to  that  of  the  daily 
paper. 

NORMA.L  SCHOOL,  the  name  given,  in  the  United  States  and  in 
some  other  countries,  to  a  school  for  the  instruction  and  training  of  teach- 
ers, being  a  translation  of  the  French  term  ecole  normnle  (from  the  Latin 
norma,  a  rule  or  model),  applied  to  such  schools  on  their  establishment  in 
France.  "  The  term  normal  school",  says  Hart  (In  the  School-Room, 
Phil,  18G8),  "  is  an  unfortunate  misnomer,  and  its  general  adoption  has  led 
to  much  confusion  of  ideas".  In  England,  these  institutions  are  styled 
training  colleges,  and  in  Germany  seminaries.  Connected  with  these 
schools  there  are  usually  mjlel  schoo's,  or  schools  of  practice,  in  which 
the  theoretical  principles  and  methods  taught  are  applied  to  the  actual 
work  of  instruction  and  discipline. 

The  normal  school  is  properly  a  professional  school  for  teachers,  and 
its  curriculum  should  have  strict  reference  to  the  special  object  of  such  an 
institution.  Without  this,  normal  schools  are  only  such  in 
Special  name,  as  all  are  who  permit  the  professional  element  to  be 
^ormal  ^^^o^^  ^'"^  those  that  pertain  to  general  culture.  Such  culture 
schools,  is,  of  course,  needed  by  the  teacher,  as  it  is  by  the  lawyer,  the 
physician,  or  the  clergyman,  who  acquires  it  in  an  academic  in- 
stitution —  college  or  university;  but  this  by  no  means  supersedes  the  law 
school,  the  medical  school,  or  the  theological  seminary.  In  like  manner 
the  normal  school  proper  presupposes  academic  training,  and  builds  upon 
it  the  special  accomplishments  needel  for  educational  work.  Normal  in- 
struction would  be  rendered  more  effective  were  this  fully  recognized,  and 
a  proper  separation  made  between  the  academic  department  of  such  an  in- 
stitution and  the  professional  department.  AVhen  this  distinction  is  not 
made,  the  latter  is  very  apt  to  be  overlooked;  and  the  antiquated  notion 
followed  that  all  that  is  needed  by  the  teacher  is  to  know  what  he  or  she 
has  to  teach.  This  is  overlooking  entirely  the  science  of  education,  now 
embodied  in  so  many  excellent  works  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing, and  on  school  management. 

The  course  of  instruction  for  normal  schools  should  embrace  (1)  the 
history  of  education,  including  the  systems  or  methods  of  distinguished 
educators;  (2)  the  principles  of  education  and  instruction,  de- 
instruciion  ^^'^^'^  from  intellectual,  psychological,  and  ethical  science,  (see 
'Eduoatiox,  and  Instruction');  (3)  the  art  of  teaching  (didactics) ; 
and  (4)  the  methods  and  rules  of  school  management  and  discipline  (school 
economy);  besides  (5)  the  application  of  these  principles  and  methods  to 
specific  branches  of  knowledge,  since  every  subject  has,  to  a  certain  extent, 
its  own  system  of  methodics.  —  See  Baix,  Education  as  a  Science  (N.  Y., 
1881);  Baldwin,  The  Art  of  School  Management  (S .  Y.,1881};  Johonnot, 


218  NUMBER 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching  (N.  Y.,  1881);  Kellogg, /Sc/ioo/ 
Management  (N.  Y.,  1880);  '&v;y.'\'y,  Methods  of  Teaching  {N.Y.,  1881). 
See  references  to  educational  authorities  in  the  Cyclopaedia  of  Educa- 
tion, passim;  and  special  list  of  books  for  teachers'  study,  in  the  Appendix 
of  this  work.     (See  also  Teachers'  Seminaries.) 

NUMBER  is  here  considered  as  a  branch  of  elementary  ox  object  in- 
struction. Great  importance  should  be  placed  on  the  means  by  which 
children  acquire  their  first  ideas  of  number.  Since  a  child's  knowledge  of 
this  subject  begins  with  counting,  the  first  exercises  for  teaching  it  should 
be  the  counting  of  objects.  The  child  may  first  be  taught  to 
How  to  gQUQ^  as  far  as  ten  by  using  the  numeral  frame  (q.  v.),  or  but- 
' "  tons,  pencils,  the  fingers,  sticks,  marks,  or  other  objects.  Next 
he  should  be  taught  to  count  groups  of  balls,  buttons,  sticks,  or  other  ob- 
jects, used  to  represent  the  several  numbers,  one,  two,  three,  four, five,  etc. 
By  using  the  groups  of  objects  thus  counted  as  illustrations  of  the  several 
numbers,  figures  may  readily  be  taught.  Let  the  pupil  count  one  ball  on 
the  numeral  frame,  one  pencil,  one  finger,  one  mark,  and  then  show  him 
the  figure  1  to  represent  the  number  of  each  object.  Next  let  him  count, 
in  groups,  two  balls  on  the  numeral  frame,  two  pencils,  two  fingers,  two 
marks,  etc.;  then  show  the  figure  2  as  a  symbol  of  the  number  of  objects 
in  each  group.  Afterward,  require  the  pupil  to  count  balls,  pencils,  and 
other  objects  in  groups  of  three,  and  then  show  the  figure  3  as  the  reure- 
sentative  of  the  number  counted  in  each  group.  In  a  similar  manner,  the 
several  figures  from  2  to  9  may  be  associated,  and  their  value  learned  by 
means  of  counting.  In  order  to  teach  children  the  value  of  the  several 
figures  by  personal  experience,  let  them  count  in  groups  two  balls,  or  but- 
tons, etc.,  and  observe  that  each  group  contains  two  oiies,  —  that  two  is 
equal  to  one  and  07ie  more,  or  two  o)ie.s.  After  the  pupils  have  counted 
several  kinds  of  objects  in  groups  of  three,  lead  them  to  notice  that  one 
and  one  and  one,  or  three  ones,  make  three,  also  that  two  and  one  make 
three.  Proceeding  in  the  same  manner  to  count  in  groups /b«r  objects, 
let  the  pupils  observe  that  four  ones,  or  two  and  one  and  one,  or  three  and 
one,  or  two  and  two,  or  two  times  two,  make  four.  By  means  of  similar 
exercises,  the  value  of  each  number  from  two  to  nine  may  be  thoroughly 
learned  by  children.  As  additional  exercises,  or  a  review  of  previous  les- 
sons, let  the  pupils  count  as  many  balls  on  the  numeral  frame,  or  hold  up 
as  many  fingers,  as  the  given  figure  represents.  By  this  means,  all  the 
figures  from  1  to  9  may  be  learned  as  symbols  of  numbers.  In  subsequent 
lessons,  for  teaching  figures  as  representatives  of  numbers  greater  than 
nine,  let  the  figures  be  arranged  in  groups  as  follows: 

First  group,       0,     1,     2,     3,    4,     5,     6,     7,     8,     9 
Second  group,  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19 
Third  group,   20,  21,  22,'  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  28,  29 
and  so  on  to  99.  Requiring  the  pupils  to  count  as  many  balls,  or  other  ob- 
jects, to  represent  in   order  the  numbers  symbolized  by  each  of  these 
groups,  will  lead  them  to  understand  the  value  of  the  numbers  that  are  ex- 
pressed with  two  figures.     This  part  of  the  instruction  may  be  greatly 
facilitated  by  giving  the  pupil  several  small  sticks,  like  matches,  and  requir- 
ing him  to  count  and  tie  in  bundles  as  many  sticks  as  each  of  the  figures 
from  1  to  9  represents.     Then  to  furnish  the  pupil  with  favorable  oppor- 


NUMERAL  FRAMfi  219 

t unities  of  learning,  by  personal  observation  and  experience,  that  each 
number  represented  by  two  figures  in  the  second  group  is  composed  of  one 
bundle  of  ten  ones,  and  one  or  more  single  ones  added,  let  him  count  and 
tie  in  a  bundle  ten  sticks  to  represent  the  number  10 ;  and  then  tie  ten 
sticks  in  a  bundle  and  add  to  it  one  single  stick  to  represent  the  number 
11,  and  so  on  to  19.  Two  bundles  of  ten  sticks  each  may  be  made  for  the 
number  20,  and  two  similar  bundles  and  a  single  stick  for  21 ;  and  so  on  to 
29.  In  this  manner,  children  may  be  taught  to  comprehend  the  value  of 
all  the  simple  numbers  to  100.  The  knowledge  obtained  by  means  of  the 
exercises  described  above  will  prepare  the  pupils  to  learn  readily  and  in- 
telligently both  the  value  and  the  form  of  writing  numbers  through  hun- 
dreds, and  thereby  to  understand  the  principles  of  numeration  and  notation. 
See  CuRRiE,  Early  and  Infant  School  Education  (London);  Calkins, 
Nein  Primary  Object  Lessons  (N.  Y.,  1871). 

NUMERAL  FRAME.  This  simple  apparatus  has  been  in  use  for 
many  centuries.  In  some  form  or  other,  it  is  now  used  for  teaching  num- 
ber, in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  sometimes  employed  to  represent 
units,  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  etc.,  in  numeration.  This  use  of  the 
numeral  frame  renders  it  necessary  to  give  artificial  values  to  the  balls  on 
different  wires;  and  notwithstanding  that  this  is  analogoiis,  in  order,  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  numerical  system  of  figures,  there  is  danger  that  young 
children,  by  the  use  of  it  for  this  purpose,  may  become  confused  between 
the  actual  numerical  value  of  a  ball  and  its  several  artificial  values. 
Inasmuch  as  numeration  can  be  illustrated  much  more  intelligently  by  the 
method  described  under  Number  (q.  v.),  if  aided  by  the  use  of  the  black- 
board, it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  an  explanation  of  it  by  the  numeral 
frame;  not,  at  least,  until  the  pupils  have  acquired  a  definite  understand- 
ing of  the  relation  between  the  value  of  single  figures,  and  their  values  as 
dependent  upon  their  relative  positions  in  regard  to  other  figures.  The 
most  important  uses  of  the  numeral  frame  are,  to  teach  a  class  of  pupils  to 
count,  and  to  illustrate  the  value  of  numbers  and  figures;  also  to  teach  the 
first  steps  in  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,  and  dividing.  For  the  first 
steps  in  adding,  let  the  pupils  add  balls  on  the  numeral  frame,  by  ones  as 
far  as  ten.  When  they  can  do  this  readily,  let  them  add  on  the  black- 
board a  column  composed  of  Is;  then  let  them  add  a  like  column  of  figures 
on  their  slates.  Subsequently,  teach  them  to  add  balls  on  the  numeral 
frame  by  tu-os;  then  to  add  a  column  of  figure  2s  on  the  blackboard;  and 
then  on  their  slates.  When  the  adding  of  Is  and  2s  has  thus  been  learned, 
proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  threes,  fours^  etc.  After  the  pupils  have 
learned  to  add  threes  as  above,  they  may  be  taught  by  these  three  steps  to 
add  Is  and  2s  in  the  same  column;  then  to  add  Is,  2s,  and  3s  in  the  same 
column.  In  this  manner  the  pupils  may  be  taught  to  add  readily  and 
rapidly  single  columns  composed  of  such  figures  as  6,  7,  8,  9.  To  give 
children  an  idea  of  subtraction,  teach  them  to  count  backward  on  the 
numeral  frame  from  ten;  thus,  10,  9,  8,  7,  6,  .5,  4,  3,  2,  1,  0.  Sub- 
sequently, call  on  a  pupil  to'hold  the  numeral  frame,  to  take  one  ball  from 
two  balls,  and  tell  how  many  remain;  then  one  ball  from  three  balls,  etc. 
Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  with  other  numbers,  taking  care  to  arrange 
the  exercises  so  as  to  give  the  pupil  as  much  actual  practice  as  possible  in 
taking  balls  or  other  objects  from  a  larger  number  of  objects.   To  illustrate 


220  OBJECT  TEACHING 

the  first  ideas  of  multiplication  to  a  class  of  young  pupils,  arrange  flie  balls 
on  the  numeral  frames  in  groups  of  twos,  ihrees,  etc.  Place  on  one  wire 
two  groups  of  two  each,  and  lead  the  pupils  to  perceive  that  they  may  say 
that,  "two  and  two  make  four";  or  that  "  two  twos  make  four";  also  that 
"  two  times  two  make  four".  Place  on  another  wire  three  groups  of  two 
each,  and  let  the  pupils  observe  that  "  two  and  two  and  two  make  six";  or 
that  "three  twos  make  six";  also  that  "three  times  two  are  six".  Proceed 
in  a  similar  manner  with  numbers,  and  so  arrange  the  exercises  as  to 
furnish  the  pupils  as  much  individual  practice  as  possible.  After  each  step 
has  been  illustrated  by  the  numeral  frame,  place  figures  on  the  blackboard 
to  represent  what  has  been  thus  taught.  To  illustrate  the  first  ideas  of 
division,  arrange  balls  in  groups  oi  four,  six,  eight,  ten,  etc.,  on  the 
different  wires.  Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  each  of  these  groups  can  be 
divided  into  groups  of  twos.  Then  require  them  to  divide  the  groups  thus 
and  tell  how  many  groups  of  twos  can  be  made  from  four  balls,  six  balls, 
eight  balls,  etc.  Let  the  pupils  also  find  how  many  threes  there  are  in  six, 
nine,  twelve;  and  how  many  fours  in  eight,  twelve,  etc.  'Jliat  which  is 
learned  in  each  step  may  be  represented  by  figures  on  the  blackboard. — 
(See  Number.) 

OBJECT  TEACHING,  a  method  of  instruction  in  which  objects 
are  employed  by  means  of  which  to   call  into  systematic   exercise  the 

observing  faculties  of  young  pupils,  with  the  threefold  design, 
Design.  ^-^^  ^^  cultivate  the  senses,  (2j  to  train  the  perceptive  faculty, so 
that  the  mind  may  be  stored  with  clear  and  vivid  ideas,  and  (3),  simul- 
taneously with  these,  to  cultivate  the  power  of  expression  by  associating 
with  the  ideas  thus  formed  appropriate  language.  The  merit  of  introducing 

object  teaching  as  a  special  method  of  elementary  instruction,  is 
.^y  "^'iom  yg\iaiiy  attributed  to  I'estalozzi;  but  Comenius,  Locke,  Kousseau, 
'  Basedow,  Rochow,  and  others  based  their  systems  of  education, 
more  or  less,  upon  the  same  principle;  that  is,  they  recognized  the  necessity 
of  conmnmicating  ideas,  or  of  affording  to  the  mind  the  means  to  grasp 
ideas  from  objects,  by  actual  perception,  before  attempting  to  teach  the 
verbal  expression  of  those  ideas,  and  that,  without  such  ideas,  mere 
"  bookdearning"  is  useless,  Pestalozzi  appears,  however,  to  have  had  only 
a  slight  knowledge  of  the  works  of  those  educationists.     Inspired  by  the 

reading  of  Rousseau's  Ihyiile  to  study  the  phases  of  mental 
Pestalozzi.  growth,  he  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  teaching  of  his 
day  was  fundamentally  wrong,  from  its  violation  of,  or  inattention  to,  the 
laws  of  mental  development.  These  laws  he  believed  to  be,  (1)  that  the 
knowledge  of  things  should  precede  that  of  words,  (2)  that,  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  this  knowledge,  the  only  effective  agents,  in  the  first  stages  of 
mental  growth,  are  the  senses,  chief  of  which  is  the  eye;  (3)  that  the  first 
objects  to  be  studied  by  the  child  are  those  immediately  surrounding  it, 
and  these,  only  in  their  simplest  forms  and  relations;  and  (4)  that  from 
these  objects  as  a  center,  the  sphere  of  knowledge  should  be  widened  by  a 
gradual  extension  of  the  powers  of  observation  to  more  distant  objects. 
The  first  instruction,  therefore,  according  to  this  plan,  should  consist  in 
concentrating  the  attention  upon  concrete  things,  in  such  a  way  as  to  re- 
sult in  a  thorough  training  of  the  observing  faculties,  so  that  the  concep- 


OBJECT  TEACHING  221. 

tions  witTi  which  the  mind  is  stored  may  be  as  well  defined,  and  as  true 
to  natiire,  as  possible.  So  impressed  was  Pestalozzi  with  the  correctness, 
and  the  supreme  importance,  of  this  method,  that  he  declared  that  the  sum 
of  his  achievements  in  education  was  the  estabhshment  of  the  truth  that 
"  the  culture  of  the  outer  and  inner  senses  is  the  absolute  foundation  of  all 
knowledge  —  the  first  and  highest  principle  of  instruction". 

The  failure  of  the  first  attempts  of  Pestalozzi  and  his  followers,  how- 
ever, in  the  practical  application  of  his  theories,  was  discouraging;  and  the 
faith  of  the  progressive  educators  who  had  accepted  them  as  a 

Wliy  not  jjg^  gospel,  was  seriously  shaken.  The  reason  of  their  failure, 
successful.  jjQ^gygj.,  was  that  their  practice  was  in  conflict  with  the  very 
principles  which  Pestalozzi  had  enunciated  as  fundamental.  _  The  human 
body,  with  which  they  began  their  instructions,  is  not  only  highly  compos- 
ite in  its  structure,  and  difficult  of  description  in  the  language  of  the  child, 
but,  by  its  very  nearness,  is  rendered  unfit  for  an  object  of  study  by 
children,  their  senses  being  most  powerfully,  and,  indeed,  almost  exclusively, 
turned  to  the  observation  of  objects  external  to  themselves.  By  attempt- 
ing, therefore,  to  name  in  detail  and  to  describe  the  limbs,  their  form, 
color,  size,  actions,  and  uses,  the  new  theory  was  exposed  to  the  ridicule  of 
its  enemies,  and  placed  in  serious  peril.  In  all  the  Protestant  countries  of 
Europe,  however,  and  especially  in  Germany,  the  leaven  of  truth  contained 
in  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  wrought  a  gradual  but  sure  reform  in  the 
old  method  of  instruction.  —  Object  teaching  became  universal 

Effect  of    in  the  primary  schools;  and  the  dignity  and  usefulness  of  the 

its  intro-  ^;ga,cher  were  increased  by  the  very  impossibility  of  prescribing 
uc  ion.  ^^^  ^^^  method  in  which  the  principles  should  be  apphed,  thus 
giving  special  prominence  to  the  fact  that  the  determining  cause  in  favor 
of  one  method  over  another  was  the  individual  ability  of  the  teacher.  _  In- 
stead of  one  invariable  method,  which  might  be  unintelhgently  acquired 
and  mechanically  applied,  a  variety  of  methods  now  presented  themselves, 
each  dependent  for  its  success  upon  circumstances.  The  individuality  of 
the  pupU.  suddenly  acquired  a  new  importance;  and  the  teacher's  individu- 
ality, also,  became  more  than  ever  before  an  essential  factor  in  the 
successful  conduct  of  the  school.  For  the  difficult  work  thus  foreshadowed, 
a  long  and  careful  preparation  was  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  student. 
The  first  step  in  this  preparation  was  the  observation  of  the 
-'^'■^P<^r'^^^°"  educational  work  of  some  good  teacher;  then  a  thorough  study, 

require  .  .^  ^-^^  normal  school,  of  the  subjects  of  pedagogy,  psychology, 
the  history  of  education,  the  natural  sciences,  imiversal  history,  mathemat- 
ics, and  arts;  and,  finally,  a  course  of  practical  teaching  in  trial  lessons, 
under  the  supervision  of  model  teachers  and  the  student's  own  associates. 
Among  the  writers  above  mentioned,  one  of  the  principal  points  of  con- 
troversy was  in  regard  to  the  necessity  of  educating  the  senses. 
^  Points  of  ]\jj[j^j-jy  (Jenied  altogether  this  necessity,  and  insisted  that  object 
controversy,  ^^g^^^^:^^^  should  be  reserved  exclusively  for  exercises  in  using 
and  understanding  language.  The  senses,  so  they  argued,  take  care  of 
themselves,  whenever  an  interest  in  surrounding  objects  is  awakened  by 
the  necessities  of  daily  life;  and  the  common  school,  they  said,  can  present 
but  few  objects  of  interest  on  which  the  senses  can  be  profitably  exercised, 
If,  for  instance,  incturcs  of  objects  are  prcseuted— as  is  most  frequently 


222  OBJECT  TEACHING 

the  case,  and  if  these  pictures  are  large  and  faithful  copies  of  the  originals 
—  -which  is  rarely  the  case  —  the  exei-cise  is  still  confined  to  only  one 
sense;  and  experience  proves  that  this  is  insufficient  to  awaken  a  lively 
interest.  The  impression  made  on  the  sight,  therefore,  is  short-lived  and 
feeble.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  objects  themselves  are  produced,  as 
these  are  generally  house  utensils,  or  articles  of  school  furniture,  only  a 
languid  interest  is  aroused  in  the  pupils'  minds,  because  there  is  rarely  any 
new  feature  to  be  observed  in  objects  so  familiar.  The  incentive  to  any 
observation  or  comparison  of  equalities,  therefore,  is  utterly  wanting ;  and 
any  sharpening  of  the  senses  is  improbable.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  exer- 
cises upon  objects  be  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  enriching  the  child's 
vocabulary,  and  of  storing  his  mind  with  just  and  accurate  conceptions,  by 
causing  him  to  connect  with  every  word  its  proper  idea,  all  will  have  been 
done  to  benefit  the  pupil  that  can  reasonably  be  expected.  The  opponents 
of  this  view,  however,  insisted  that  the  use  of  object  teaching  for  the 
exclusive  purpose  of  the  acquisition  of  language,  would  overthrow  that 
fundamental  principle  of  the  system  which  discountenances  mere  word 
learning.  The  correct  understanding  and  use  of  language,  also,  they 
thought,  could  be  learned  as  well  from  books  and  conversation ;  while,  if 
the  child  is  made  to  understand,  that  to  talk  fluently  and  correctly  of  ob- 
jects is  all  that  is  required,  and  that  a  real  knowledge  of  those  objects  is  of 
no  consequence,  clever  talk  will  always  be  more  highly  valued  by  him 
than  exact  knowledge.  According  to  their  view,  the  pupil  brings  with 
him  to  the  primary  school  only  the  raw  material  out  of  which  objective 
knowledge  and  the  proper  use  of  the  senses  may  be  developed:  his  mental 
pictures  are  wanting  in  definiteness  and  in  order.  These  must  be  taken 
to  pieces,  L  e.,  analyzed,  and  recomposed,  i.  e.,  synthetized,  at  the  sight, 
hearing,  or  touch,  of  real  objects.  If  the  interest  of  the  children  in  the 
exercise  of  the  senses  is  lacking,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  excite  it;  and 
this  should  be  easy  with  young  children,  if  the  teacher's  interest  in  the 
subject  is  lively  enough  to  communicate  itself  to  them. 

While  the  ra]>id  progress  of  science  and  art  in  our  day  infinitely  aug- 
ments the  mass  of  knowledge  which  it  is  desirable  and  imjjortant  for  every 
body  to  learn,  the  increasing  artificiality  of  our  daily  life  tends  to  alienate 
us  from  a  spontaneous  exercise  of  our  senses;  and  this  deficiency  must  be 
supplied  by  education,  to  enable  us  to  compass  the  amount  of  knowledge 

which  it  is  desirable  to  acquire.     The  exercise  of  the  senses  is 

Education  j^q^  Qn]y  practically  useful,  but  it  is,  in  most  cases,  full  of  inter- 

sense-i       ^^^-     '^^  illustrate  this,  let  pupils  be  asked  to  estimate  by  sight 

the  length  of  a  pen-holder,  the  dimensions  of  a  window-pane, 
distances  on  the  floor  or  on  the  ground,  the  weight  of  objects  that  can  be 
held  in  tlie  hand,  or  to  distinguish  shades  of  color,  and  the  differences  in 
pitch  or  quality  of  nuisical  sounds.  Such  exercises  are  not  only  amusing, 
but  useful;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the 
circiimstanccs  of  daily  life  do  not,  of  themselves,  educate  the  senses.  Thus, 
let  a  dozen  coimtrymen  be  a.skcd  the  length  of  a  certain  way  over  which 
they  often  travel,  and  the  probability  is  that  a  dozen  different  answers  will 
be  given,  many  of  them  wide  of  the  mark.  Instances  might  be  multi- 
plied indefinitely  to  show  that  the  senses  are  not  self-educative.  Some 
educators,  while  not  objecting  to  any  of  the  five  purposes  to  which  object 


OBJECT  TEACHING  223 

lessons  may  be  applied;  namely,  (1)  the  preparation  of  the  pupil  for 
serious  learning;  (2)  the  sharpening  of  the  senses,  and  the  exercise  of  all 
mental  functions;  (3)  exercise  in  language;  (4)  the  acquisition  of 
Object  knowledge;  and  (5)  moral  training;  still  have  insisted  that  a 
teaching  &  distinction  should  be  made  between  object  teaching  and  objective 
teaching,  ieaching;  the  former  comprising  exercises  in  which^  the  ob- 
jects are  taught  for  themsekes,  i.  e.,  for  instruction  in  all  the 
properties  which  are  peculiar  to  them;  the  latter,  for  the  acquisition  of 
that  generalized  or  fundamental  knowledge  which  is  common  to  many 
widely  different  objects.  The  former,  they  contended,  should  occupy  only 
a  part  of  the  time  during  the  first  year  or  two,  after  which  it  should  cease; 
but  every  branch  of  learning  should,  in  turn,  be  treated  objectively.  The 
method  of  procedure  should  be,  first,  the  presentation  of  the  object.  This 
should  be  analyzed  by  the  pupils,  and  immediately  reconstructed,  the 
teacher  supplying  nothing  but  technical  terms  which  are  supposed  to  be 
unknown  to  the  pupUs,  but  guiding  them  by  conversation  to  observe,  com- 
pare, and  reason  correctly  and  in  proper  language,  to  rise  from  the  single 
features  of  the  object  to  its  entirety,  from  similar  features  to  generaliza- 
tions, from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  facts  to  laws.  The  oppo- 
nents of  this  view  said  that  the  principle  was  good,  but  did  not  go  far 
enough.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  a  vast  body  of  knowledge  that  cannot 
be  treated  objectively.  All  facts,  for  instance,  in  regard  to  the  days  of  the 
week,  and  the  months,  their  names,  number,  etc.;  many  facts  in  regard  to 
time,  such  as  the  number  of  seconds  in  a  minute,  the  number  of  minutes 
in  an  hour,  etc.,  the  names  of  the  seasons,  the  method  of  telling  time  by 
the  clock,  —  these  and  many  other  necessary  facts  cannot  be  objectively 
presented,  but  must  be  learned  arbitrarily;  while,  at  a  later  period  in  edu- 
cation, there  appear  astronomical,  geographical,  and  historical  facts,  which 
must  simply  be  taken  on  trust,  and  committed  to  memory.  In  view  of 
these  things,  text-books  are  indispensable;  and  all  attempts  to  teach  with- 
out them  are  useless,  and  result  in  a  waste  of  precious  time.  While  rec- 
ognizing, therefore,  the  value  of  object  teaching  in  many  branches,  and 
its  pre-eminent  value  in  a  few,  they  assert  that  it  has  its  natural  limita- 
tions beyond  which  memorizing  and  an  adherence  to  the  text-book  are  the 
only  proper  means  to  be  relied  upon  by  the  teacher.  At  the  present  time, 
this  latter  view  —  that  a  combination  of  the  two  methods  should  be  em- 
ployed, is  in  the  ascendant.  In  Europe,  especially  in  Germany,  this  re- 
actionary movement  is  thought  to  be  fostered  from  political  and  religious 
motives.  In  the  United  States,  the  demand  for  teachers  has  so  far  ex- 
ceeded the  supply  from  the  normal  schools,  without  a  corresponding  rise 
in  salaries,  that  the  standard  of  qualifications  for  teachers  has  not  been 
maintained  at  the  height  which  many  educational  reformers  had  hoped  it 
would  be.  In  short,  the  principles  and  system  of  Pestalozzi  cannot  be 
said,  at  the  present  time,  to  be  fully  carried  out.  Object  teaching  should 
be  begun  as  early  as  possible,  and  in  the  manner  of  the  kindergarten,  and 
should  be  followed  by  objective  and  conceptive  teaching,  which 
teaching,  should  be  carried  through  every  branch  of  learning.  The  men- 
tal growth  of  pupils,  however,  should  not  be  retarded  by  a 
superfluous  use  of  this  method.  A  safe  criterion,  by  which  the  teacher 
may  know,  at  any  moment,  whether  he  has  made  a  proper  use  of  the  ob- 


221  OEAL  INSTEUCTION 

ject  method,  may  be  found  in  the  self-activity  of  his  pupils,  their  ability 
to  grasp,  in  their  answers  to  his  questions,  the  general  fact,  j^roposition,  or 
law.  The  new  method  is  justly  called  the  devdopinrj  meihod  (q.  v.),  the 
pupils'  minds  being  made  to  develop  themselvus,  the  teacher  only  suggest- 
ing what  they  are  to  discover.  Every  pupil  is,  as  it  were,  to  rediscover 
every  science  in  the  genetic  method  (q.  v.),  a  difficult  task  for  the  teacher, 
and  apparently  a  circuitous  way  for  the  pupil.  But  because  of  its  thor- 
oughness, it  is  the  most  rapid  way  of  learning;  and  its  results  are  in- 
delibly fixed  in  the  mind.  1  his  method,  also,  if  early  begun,  and  consist- 
ently carried  out,  is  successful  with  every  child,  and  saves  precious  time, 
which,  later  in  life,  may  be  devoted  to  those  higher  branches,  that  lie 
beyond  the  common-school  course,  but  which  are  every  year  becoming,  in 
many  cases,  highly  desirable,  and,  in  some,  indispensable.  The  literature 
of  object  teaching  is  very  extensive;  for  an  enumeration  of  the  piincipal 
works,  see  special  list  in  the  Appendix  of  this  work.  (See  also  Color, 
Form,  and  Nlmber  ) 

ORAL  INSTRUCTION  is  a  technical  term  in  use  in  the  common 

schools  of  the  United  States  to  denote  instruction,  without  text-books,  in 

the  nature  and  uses  of  common  objects,  and  also  in  the  elements  of  natural 

science.     In  a  certain  fcense,  all  instruction  given  by  the  teacher 

Defined.  ^^  ^^^  ^j^gg  ^.^^^^^  either  to  supplement  the  text-book,  or  by  way 
of  general  explanation,  may  be  said  to  be  oral;  and,  considered  in  this 
sense,  it  belongs  to  every  subject  taught.  But  oral  instruction,  as  it  ap- 
pears in  courses  of  study,  is  limited  to  a  distinct  channel  of  teaching,  and, 
therefore,  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  general  class  instruction  in  the 
entire  range  of  subjects.  It  is  distinct  from  object  teaching,  because  it  is 
not  confined  to  teaching  through  sensible  objects.  It  deals  also  with  more 
advanced  pupils  —  those,  for  example,  wlio  have  passed  through  the  lowest, 
or  primary  grades,  and  who  may  be  supposed  to  have  benefited  by  what  is 
known  as  object  teaching.  It  has  to  do,  moreover,  with  elementary  knowl- 
edge, and  has  been  gradually  narrowed  to  instruction  in  natural  .science. 
As  might  be  gathered  from  the  word  oral  its  k-ading  or  cardinal  idea  is 
instruction  without  a  text-book.  'J  he  teacher  is  in  the  place  of  the  book. 
'I'he  information  given  flows  entirely  from  him;  and  the  skill  with  which 
he  imparts  this,  is  the  measure  of  his  success.  Closely  allied  in  importance 
to  the  foregoing,  is  the  principle  tliat  the  instruction  shall  be  familiar.  In 
its  methods,  it  must  approach  closely  those  that  are  adopted  in 

Methods.  ^^  iutelligent  family  circle;  it  must  emulate  the  kmdliness, 
patience,  and  watchfulness  of  a  parent,  or  of  a  deeply  interested  friend. 
With  a  clear  idea  as  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  instruction  to  be  given  at 
each  lcs.son,  it  must  avoid  mere  amusement  and  puerilities,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  danger  of  a  mechanical  and  hard  method,  on  the  other. 
The  test  of  such  familiar  instruction  is  the  interest  vhich  the  teather 
creates  and  maintains;  the  want  of  life  and  animation  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils  is  an  unfailing  measure  of  the  teacher's  short-coming.  But  instruc- 
tion to  be  familiar  must  be  fertile  in  illustration.  In  no  part  of  the  teach- 
er's work  is  there  greater  need  of  versatility.  It  is  in  this  that  the  vast 
advantage  of  oral  teaching  over  that  which  depends  on  the  text-book  is 
apparent.  Pliancy,  variety,  suitableness  to  the  particular  wants  of  certain 
pupils,  or  of  the  class  as  a  whole,  simple  familiar  allusions  and  illustrations, 


ORAL  IXSTRUCTIOX  225 

all  come  into  play.  If  experiments  are  necessary,  they  should  be  always 
of  the  simplest  kind,  and  with  the  commonest  materials,  such  as  nearly 
every  child  can  obtain,  if  lie  can  be  induced  to  imitate  the  experiments.  So 
far  as  objects  are  needed,  those  that  are  easily  obtainable  are  to  be  prefer- 
red. The  approach  to  the  pupils  mind  through  his  senses  is  carefully  to 
be  kept  open;  most  constantly  of  all,  the  avenue  of  sight,  although,  of 
course,  the  other  senses  are  not  to  be  neglected.  As  a  natural  result  of 
this  familiar  instruction,  the  interest  of  the  pupils  will  manifest  itself  in 
inquiries,  and  especially  in  a  desire  to  communicate  the  glimmerings  of 
their  own  knowledge.  This  will  render  the  exercise  still  more  familiar, 
break  down  the  barrier  of  reserve  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  stimulate 
observation  and  thought  throughout  the  class,  and  react  on  the  mind  of 
the  teacher,  compelling  perliaps  new  illustrations,  a  more  carefully  con- 
sidered statement,  or  fresh  investigation  outside  of  school.  From  what 
has  been  stated,  it  will  be  seen  that  oral  instruction  is  widely  separated 
from  lecturing.  The  children  are  brought  immediately  in  contact  with  the 
mind  of  the  teacher,  by  means  of  skillful  questioning  on  his  part,  by  re- 
quiring from  them  connected  statements,  and  by  stimulating  them  with  his 
approval  when  a  happy  answer  or  statement  has  been  made.  This  method 
never  loses  sight  of  class  instruction,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  carried  on 
without  the  assistance  of  the  class.  Nor  is  it  a  recitation  in  the  generall}'- 
received  acceptation  of  the  word.  There  is  no  lesson  to  be  learned  in  the 
sense  implied  by  a  recitation,  nor  any  to  be  recited.  The  memory  is  of 
course  taxed,  but  it  is  not  taxed  by  any  lesson  to  be  committed  as  a  task. 
The  measure  of  the  pupil's  interest  is  the  measure  of  his  acquisition.  What- 
ever he  learns  is  in  no  sense  compulsory.  Skillful  reviewing  is,  indeed, 
used  to  test  the  hold  that  the  oral  instruction  has  kept  on  the  pupil,  and 
to  supplement  what  has  been  imparted,  by  new  or  more  lively  illustration. 
But  repetition,  in  a  mechanical  or  rote  sense,  as  understood  to  be  an  under- 
lying principle  in  text-book  instruction,  is  not  used  in  oral  instruction. 
The  subjects  to  which  oral  instruction,  as  a  special  method,  is  usually 
confined,  are  embraced,  under  the  head  of  natural  science.      While    it 

does  not  aim  to  make  the  instruction  in  these  subjects  scientific, 
science      ^^  "^*^^^   ^"^    ^^    impart   such    instruction    in     a    methodical 

way,  and  with  the  most  careful  accuracy.  AVherever  classi- 
fication is  necessary,  such  classification  naturally  becomes  more  or  less 
scientific.  Whenever  definitions  are  necessary,  they  must  approach 
scientific  accuracy.  But  the  scientific  nomenclature,  except  in  those 
cases  in  which  it  has  passed  into  common  use,  is  carefully  avoided. 
Latin  or  Greek  terms,  therefore,  being  burdensome  to  the  young,  however 
instructive  to  the  adult,  are  generally  to  be  discarded,  and  familiar  or  com- 
mon names  to  be  used.  As  a  thorough  scientific  classification  is  not  the 
object  of  oral  instruction,  neither  does  it  endeavor  to  make  the  treatment 
of  the  various  subjects  exhaustive.  It  has  done  much  of  its  true  work 
when  it  has  awakened  attention,  strengthened  observation,  led  the  pupils 
to  collect  illustrative  objects,  taught  them  to  group  and  arrange  what  they 
have  observed,  and  implanted  in  them  a  tolerably  clear  idea  of  the  simpler 
elements  of  the  science,  to  which  the  instruction  has  been  confined.  It  has 
done  its  fuU  work  when,  in  addition  to  this,  it  has  accustomed  the  pupil  to 
express,  iu  his  o\\'u  language,  what  he  has  learned  and  retained,  without  tho 


22(1  ORDKR 

])aiiiful  halting  and  poverty  of  language  so  often  manifest  in  the  class  room. 
With  some  approach  to  scientific  accuracy,  oral  instruction  may  be  defined 
as  the  union  of  conceptive  and  objective  training.    It  does  not 
Objective  discard  objective  illustration,  nor  does  it  depend  entirely  on  the- 
^mtice'  development  of  perception  to  furnish  new  ideas.    It  proceeds  on 
*    the  principle,  that,  in  the  mind  of  eveiy  healthy  child  of  eight 
years  of  age,  there  is  a  vast  number  of  tolerably  distinct  conceptions,  ob- 
tained through  the  senses,  as  well  as  from  conversation,  from  reading,  from 
home  instruction,  and  from  play;  that  these  conceptions  are  particularly 
abundant  in  relation  to  natural  objects;  and  that  it  is  the  office  of  the  oral 
instructor  to  recognize  their  existence  by  using  them  to  form  more  complex 
ideas,  or  as  the  nucleuses  around  which  to  arrange  the  new  ideas  imparted 
during  instruction.    As  to  the  age  when  this  instruction  should 
Age  and    j^^  given,  as  well  as  its  importance,  the  following  words  of  Pres- 
^  '  ident  Porter,  in   T//e  Jlionan  InteMed,   may  be   cited.     "  The 

studies  which  should  be  first  ])ursued  ai'e  those  which  require  and  discipline 
tlie  powers  of  observation  and  acquisition,  and  which  involve  imagination 
and  memory,  in  contrast  with  thof^e  which  demand  severe  efforts  and  trained 
habits  of  thought.  Inasmuch  also  as  material  objects  are  apprehended  and 
mjistered  in  early  life  with  far  greater  ease  and  success  than  the  acts  and 
states  of  the  spirit,  objective  and  material  studies  should  have  almost  the 
exclusive  precedence.  The  capacity  of  exact  and  discriminating  percep- 
tion, and  of  clear  and  retentive  memory,  should  be  developed  as  largely  a.s 
possible.  The  imagination  in  all  its  forms  should  be  directed  and  elevated 
■ — ■  we  do  not  say  stimulated,  because  in  the  case  of  most  children,  its 
activity  is  never-tiring,  whether  they  be  at  study,  work,  or  play.  We  do 
not  say,  cultivate  perception,  memory  and  fancy,  to  the  exclusion  or 
repression  of  thought,  for  this  is  impossible.  These  powers,  if  exercised  by 
human  beings,  must  be  interpenetrated  by  thought.  If  wisely  cultivated 
by  studies  properly  arranged,  they  will  necessarily  involve  discrimination, 
comparison,  and  exjilanation.  To  tench  pure  observation,  or  the  mastery 
of  objects  or  words,  without  classification  and  interpretation,  is  to  be  igno- 
rant even  to  simple  stupidity''.  Further  on,  the  same  author,  in  speaking 
of  the  various  studies  to  be  prosecuted  in  childhood  says,  "  Natural  history 
in  all  its  branches,  as  contrasted  with  the  science  of  nature,  or  scientific 
physics,  should  be  ma.stcred  with  the  objects  before  the  eye  —  flowers, 
minerals,  shells,  birds,  and  beasts.  These  studies  should  all  be  mastered  in 
the  spring-time  of  life,  when  the  tastes  are  simple,  the  heart  is  fresh,  and 
the  eye  is  sharp  and  clear.  But  science  of  every  kind,  whether  of  langufmc 
of  nature,  of  the  soul,  or  of  (ilod,  as  science  should  not  be  prematurely 
taught". 

ORDER,  in  school  management,  implies  (1)  the  existence  of  a  judicious 
.system  of  regulations,  and  (2)  a  uniform  and  habitual  observance  of  them 
by  the  pupils.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  of  a  good  school, 
since  it  enables  the  teacher  to  concentrate  all  its  educative  agencies  without 
embarra-ssment  or  intcrru])tion.  1"he  characteristics  of  good  order  are  (1) 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  to  the  legitimate  work  of  the  school, 
(2)  obedience  and  respect  to  teaclicrs,  (.3)  decorous  deportment  ■ —  the  ab- 
sence of  tumult,  rudeness,  frivolity,  and  frolicsome  actions,  calculated  to 
disturb  the  school,  and  (4)  propriety  and  exactness  in  the  school  evolutions 


ORDER  OF  STUDIES  -  ORTHOGRAPHY  227 

and  drill.  Order  is  the  result  of  skill  and  tact  on  the  part  of  the  teacher ; 
it  cannot  be  fully  maintained  unless  he  is  vested  with  suitable  authority, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  correct  disorder,  as  soon  as  it  manifests  itself.  Gen- 
eral disorder  in  a  school  can  result  only  from  bad  management,  indicating 
incompetency  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  "  If  a  school  be  well  organized  ", 
says  Wickersham,  "its  classes  well  arranged,  its  work  well  systematized; 
if  pupils  be  properly  employed  in  study,  in  recitation,  in  exercise;  if 
school-government  be  well  understood  and  wisely  administered,  a  large 
proportion  of  the  offenses  which  now  occur  in  school  wiU  disappear."  — 
(See  Discipline,  and  Government.) 

ORDER  OF  STUDIES.     See  Course  of  Instruction. 
ORTHOGRAPHY,    as  a  science,  treats  of  the  representation   of 
spoken  language  by  visible  signs;  it  includes  a  systematic  history  of  such 

signs,  and  a  discussion  of  the  principles  according  to  which  they 
U  treats    ^^*^^^*^  ^^  made  and  used.    Picture  writing  is  first  used;  pictures 

of  objects  are  used  as  signs  of  the  names  of  the  objects,  then  of 
initial  syllables  in  such  names,  and  finally  of  elementary  sounds.  The 
pictures,  meantime,  are  abbreviated  and  modified  to  what  we  call  letters. 
The  essential  principle  of  alphabetic  Avriting  is  that  a  perfect  alphabet 
must  have  one  character  for  each  elementary  sound  in  the  language,  and 

only  one.     Subordinate  rules  are,  that  the  characters  should  be 
alolmbet    ^^^^  ^°  write  and  to  distinguish,  and  shapely;  like  sounds  should 

have  like  signs,  and  similar  series  of  sounds  should  have  anal- 
ogous sets  of  signs;  each  character  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  suggest,  to  some 
extent,  the  position  of  the  organs  of  speech  in  forming  the  sound;  derived 
alphabets  are  esteemed  the  better  for  embodying  important  history;  all 
nations  should  use  the  same  signs  with  similar  values.  No  nation  has 
ever  made  any  near  approach  to  a  perfect  alphabet.  The  growth  from 
picture  writing  goes  on  without  much  guidance  from  ideas,  and  all  the 
qualities  which  are  merely  matters  of  history  and  symmetry,  are  of  little 
consequence  in  comparison  with  the  essential  principle  of  phonetic  con- 
venience. The  Anglo-Saxon  language  was  reduced  to  writing  in  Roman 
letters  by  the  missionaries,  who  converted  the  people  to  Christianity,  and 

gave  them  a  pretty  good  alphabet.  The  letters  were  used  in 
^nsveilina  ^^^ir   Roman  values,  or    nearly  so,  and  new  characters  were 

added  for  the  sounds  of  a  in  fat,  ih  in  ilieir  (dh),  th  in  thin, 
and  w.  After  the  Norman  conquest,  chaos  came  again  with  Anglo- 
Saxon,  or  rather  English,  spelling.  A  large  part  of  the  words  of  each 
race  of  the  new  people  were  difficult  for  the  other  to  pronounce.  The 
scholars  inclined  to  spell  in  the  old  book  fashion;  but  the  Normans  dropped 
the  special  Anglo-Saxon  discriminations,  and  left  many  of  their  own  letters 

standing  which  were  not  pronounced  by  the  people;  and  many 
speUinq    ^^^^^^  were  inserted  to  no  purpose  in  ill-directed  attempts  to 
/  '   represent  the  strange  combinations.      Then  followed  a  change 

in  the  whole  gamut,  so  to  speak,  of  the  vowel  sounds.  The  close  vowels 
were  changed  under  the  accent  into  diphthongs  by  taking  an  a  sound 
before  them.      The  old  i.  pronounced  as  in  machine  has  thus  changed  to 

ai,  pronounced  as  i  in  mine;  u  as  in  rule  has  given  rise  to  aw, 
charges.    P^QO^^ced  as  ou  in  house.     The  open  and  mixed  vowels  have 

become  closer:   a,  as  in  far,  changing  to   a    fthat  is,  e)  as  in 


228  OKTHOGRArHT 

fate  or  wall,  or  to  o  as  in  home  (A-S.  hdm)\  e  as  in  they,  changing  to 
e  (that  is,  i)  in  me;  o  as  in  foe,  changing  to  oo  (that  is,  u)  as  in 
moon  (A-S.  moua).  Single  characters  have  thus  come  to  stand  for  dijih- 
thongs,  and  the  long  and  short  sounds,  which  go  in  pairs  in  other  languages, 
are  denoted  in  ours  by  different  characters,  and  come  from  different 
sources.  Intermediate  between  the  old  a  (fur)  and  e  (met)  has  become 
established  n  in  fat,  fare;  between  a  (far)  ando  (vote),  o  in  not  and  nor, 
and  the  sounds  of  u  in  but,  burn,  have  also  arisen.  All  these  have  no 
special  signs.  Four  consonants  sh,  zh,  th,  dh  are  in  the  same  condition. 
The  people  have  long  since  ceased  to  feel  any  necessity  for  keeping  sounds 
and  signs  together.  Changes  go  on  without  any  record  in  the  writing;  ety- 
mologists slip  in  new  silent  letters,  on  the  ground  of  imaginary  deriva- 
tions; old  monsters,  fertile  in  the  popular  fancy,  propagate  themselves  in 
the  congenial  environment;  and,  altogether,  we  have  attained  the  worst 
alphabetical  spelling  in  the  world.  For  the  history  of  all  these  changes, 
see  Ellis's  i//s/orj/  of  English  Provvnciation  (Loudon,  1867);  Sweet's 
History  of  English  Somids  (London,  1874);  W At,v>'E.y\ as' &  Annly tic  Or- 
thography (Phiia.,  1858);  ^\.av.civs,  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar  {'^ .Y .,\S''iO); 
and  the  articles  Anglo  Saxon,  and  English,  the  Study  of,  with  the  au- 
thorities there  referred  to. 

Orthography,  in  a  narrower  sense,  is  the  art  of  spelling  correctly,  ac- 
cording to  the  standard  of  a  language.     It  first  demands  the  attention  of 
teachers  as  the  art  of  inculcating  the  .spelling  of  P'nglish  accord- 
svdUna     ^"S  ^0  the  dictionaries  of  our  language.     In  early  times,  there 
was  no  standard  English  spelling.     'J  he  printers  added  or  sub- 
tracted letters  for  convenience  of   spacing;  the  same  word  vill  be  found 
spelt  several  different  ways  on  the  same  page.     Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary 
(175.5)  was  the  first  recognized  standard.      The  common  way  of  teaching 
spelliug,  is  to  teach  from  a  spelling  book  the  form  and  name  of  each  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet;  then  to  practice  on  combinations  of  the 
Methods    Jettcrs  in  pairs,  naming  each  letter  and  then  uttering  the  sound 
svdlinn^ '^^  the   combination;  then  to  practice   in  the  same  way  on  com- 
binations of  three  letters;  then  on  words  of  two  syllables,  and 
BO  on.     These  syllables  and  words  are  selected  with  care;  similar  sounds 
are  grouped  together,  and  the  groups  arranged  in  a  progressive  order  of 
difficulty  in  spelling-books.      ^J  he  first  steps  of  this  process  may  be  made 
easier  by  using  blocks  with  the  letters  on  them  for  the  learner  to  name 
and  arrange  into  syllables;  by  setting  him  to  write  the  letters  on  the  slate, 
on  paper,  or  on  the   blackboard;    liy  addiny  pictures  of  the  objecta  the 
names  of  which   are  spelt;  or  by  the  use  of  rhymes,  and  other  contrivances 
of  artificial  memory.     Another  method  is  to  begin  with  words  as  wholes, 
and,  after  some  progress  has  been  made  in  reading  in  that  way,  to  direct 
attention  to  the  separate  letters,  their  names,  and  sounds  (u-ord  method). 
Teachers  proceeding  in  this  way  often  name  the  letters  by  the  sounds  which 
they  have  in  the  word  to  be  spelt,  and  not  by  their  proper  names.     1  his 
is  sometimes  called  the  phonic  method.      Scholars  are  led  on  to  more 
difficult  words.     Text  books  of  hard  words,  more  or  less  classified,  with 
rules  for  the  most  puzzling  groups,  are  prepared,  and  blanks  for  written 
exercises  in  spelling.     Some  little  help  may  be  gained  by  rules,  and  mne- 
monic cojJtrivaucesj  but  the  standard  spelling  of  oui-  language  is  bo  ir- 


OETHOGEAPHY  229 

regular,  that  continual  practice  for  many  years  is  necessary  to  make  any 
approach  to  the  mastery  of  it.  Among  the  most  efficient  helps  to  the 
teacher  is  the  spe'Mng  7natch,  for  which  sides  are  chosen  which  contend  for 
the  victory.  It  should  be  noted  that  continual  practice  iu 
^match'  reading  and  writing  is  needed,  or  training  to  spell  aloud  in  class 
will  not  save  from  mistakes  in  writing,  i  urther,  the  most 
important  words  for  each  person  are  his  own  vocabulary,  the  words 
which  he  uses  in  his  own  writing.  Perfect  accuracy  in  these  is  the 
end  most  to  be  desired  in  teaching.  If  this  habit  is  once  established,  un- 
usual words  will  be  looked  up,  when  the  writer  has  occasion  to  use  them. 
AVith  all  aids  and  arts,  good  spelling  is  one  of  the  most  rare  and  costly 
accomplishments;  and,  naturally,  stress  is  laid  on  it  as  the  sign  of  a 
thoroughly  educated  person  out  of  all  proportion  to  its  real  value.  The 
best  teachers  in  other  respects  often  fail  in  spelling.  English  orthography 
is  the  opprobrium  of  English  scholarship,  and  the  greatest  hindrance  to 
education  and  to  the  spread  of  our  language.  Our  children  spend  three 
years  in  learning  to  spell  a  little;  while  (jlerman  children  get  further  iu 
a  single  year.  Millions  of  dollars  are  spent  every  year  in 
'^refol'm  pi'i'^^-i'^g  silent  letters.  Earnest  efforts  are  now  making  for  re- 
form. The  philological  associations  of  En^land  and  America, 
teachers'  associations,  state  and  national,  in  England  and  America,  and 
some  state  legislatures,  have  committees  appointed  on  the  subject.  Several 
schemes  of  reform  have  been  presented,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
those  of  A.  J.  Ellis  and  I.  Pitman,  E.  Jones,  A.  M.  Bell,  and  E.  Leigh. 
Mr.  Bell  has  invented  a  set  of  characters  wholly  unlike  our  present  letters, 
■which  indicate  by  their  form  the  position  of  the  organs  of  speech.  It  can 
hardly  come  into  speedy  use  in  common  books.  Scholars  have  begun  to 
use  it  somewhat  in  scientific  treatises.  (See  Bell,  Visible  Speech,  Lon- 
don, 18G7.)  Mr.  Pitman  has  proposed  an  alphabet  containing  16  new  let- 
ters; and  there  is  already  quite  a  body  of  literature  in  that  alphabet.  Dr. 
E.  Leigh  has  combined  a  phonetic  print,  like  Pitman's,  with  the  standard 
spelling.  (See  Leigh,  Pronouncing  Orlliorimpliy,  St.  Louis,  1864,  and 
his  later  publications  in  Xew  York.)  Elementary  books  for  schools, 
printed  according  to  his  system,  have  been  used  for  several  years  in  St. 
Louis,  Washington,  New  York,  Boston,  and  other  cities,  and  are  said  to 
save  much  of  the  time  usually  spent  in  learning  to  read.  Editions  of  most 
of  the  elementary  books  (primers,  etc.)  published  in  tlie  United  States  are 
issued  iu  Leigh's  print.  (See  Phonetics  )  Mr.  Ellis  and  Mr.  Jones  pro- 
pose systems  based  on  the  present  spelling,  using  always  the  same  letters 
for  each  sound  that  are  now  oftenest  used  to  denote  it,  as  follows:  (Mr. 
Jones's  scheme)  a  as  in  at,  aa  (father),  ai  (aid),  au  (taught),  b,  c  (cat),  ch 
(chip),  d,  e  (met),  ee  (eel),f,  g  (go),  h,  i  (in),  ie  (pie),j,  l,m,n,  ng  (sing), 
0  (on),  oe  (foe),oi  (oil),  oo  (ooze),  ou  (out),p,  r, s,  (sun),  sh  (ship),  t,  ill 
(their,  thine),  u  (bun),  ue  (hue),  v,  w,  y,z  (zeal).  This  scheme  is  de- 
fective in  giving  the  letters  different  values  in  combination  from  those 
which  they  have  when  alone,  and  in  representing  so  many  elementary 
sounds  by  digraphs.  Besides,  it  does  not  serve  to  bring  our  spelling  into 
harmony  with  other  languages.  Its  advantage  is,  that  it  can  be  set  up 
from  common  printer's  cases,  and  that  it  can  be  read  by  any  one  who  cau 
read  the  old  spelling.  —  See  C^cloj^cedia  of  Education, 


230  PATIENCE  —  PENMANSHir 

PATIENCE,  the  calm  endurance  of  necessary  toil  or  suffering.  This 
quality,  though  similar  to  perseverance  in  the  prolonged  effort  which  its 
exercise  presupposes,  differs  from  it  chiefly  in  the  equable  temper  with 
which  that  effort  is  made.  A  patient  spirit  is  one  of  the  most  important 
elements  in  the  character  of  a  successful  educator.  Many  occasions,  indeed, 
will  occur  when  patience  will  be  the  only  virtue  which  will  command  suc- 
cess. Its  cultivation,  therefore,  is  desirable  both  on  this  account,  and 
because  of  its  value  in  mental  discipline.  Its  possession,  moreover,  is 
necessary  both  to  the  teacher  and  to  the  pupil.  To  the  forn^.cr,  it  is  of 
special  use  in  his  treatment  of  the  varying  dispositions  with  which  he  has 
to  deal.  'J'he  provocations  to  impatience  and  ill  temper  are  so  many  and 
so  constant,  that,  without  patience,  the  teacher's  life  will  be  a  continued 
series  of  annoyances.  Impatience  in  children  is  the  result  either  of  tempera- 
ment or  hereditary  predisposition;  and,  in  dealing  with  it,  the  teacher 
should  remember  that  nothing  so  tends  to  develop  and  foster  it  in  his  pu- 
pils, as  a  constant  practical  exhibition  of  it  in  his  daily  intercourse  with 
them.  As  nothing  is  so  infectious  as  ill  temper,  so  nothing  tends  so 
rapidly  to  curb  ill  temper  as  that  quiet  forbearance  which  a  patient  spirit 
diffuses  around  it  like  an  atmosphere.  The  mental  powers,  also,  act  with 
much  greater  effect  when  the  calmness  of  the  judgment  is  undisturbed  by 
ill  temper  or  impatience.  Perseverance  may,  indeed,  exist  without  patience, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  may  accomplish  its  objects;  but  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  more  than  half  the  good  results  which  perseverance  aided  by  patience 
might  accomplish,  are  thrown  away  if  patience  does  not  accompany  it. 

PEDAGOGY,  or  Pedagogics  ((Jr.  TraiSa^uyia,  from  rro7f.  T:ai66Q, 
a  boy,  and  a>w}(5f,  leading  or  guiding),  the  science  and  art  of  giving  in- 
struction to  children,  particularly  in  school,  or  as  by  a  school-teacher 
(TTai6ayuy6<:).  This  term  is  more  generally  used  in  Germany  than  in  the 
United  States  or  Great  Britain,  in  which  the  theory  and  art  of  the  teacher 
or  educator  is  designated  as  ivslruction  or  education;  indeed,  the  word 
pedcKjoyxie  is,  in  these  countries,  used  as  a  term  of  reproach.  For  infor- 
mation" in  regard  to  the  various  departments  of  -pedagogy,  see  Education, 
Instrictiox,  DinACTU's,  etc. 

PENMANSHIP,  writing  with  the  pen,  although  the  term  is  some- 
times us^ed  to  indicate  any  kind  of  handwriting,  or  chirographic,  the 
pen  being  the  most  important  instrument  for  writing.  The 
1  alue.  ability  to  write  is  one  of  the  two  fundamental  characteristics  of 
an  educated  person,  the  inability  to  read  and  write  constituting  what  is 
technically  called  illiteracy/;  and  yet,  in  advanced  education,  a  legible  or 
elegant  style  of  handwriting  is  not  considered  of  great  importance;  for  the 
cases  are  vcrj-  few  in  which  a  candidate  either  for  admission  to  a  college  or 
university,  or  for  a  graduating  diploma,  is  rejected  for  not  being  able  to 
write;  any  scrawl,  however  illegible  or  inelegant,  being  usually  accepted  as 
evidence  of  such  ability.  The  consequence  is,  that  good  penmanship  has 
not  been  the  di.stinguisliing  feature  of  college  graduates,  but  rather  the  re- 
verse. When  the  value  of  this  accomplishment,  in  every  sphere  of  life,  is 
considered,  it  will  be  obvious  that  the  policy  of  thus  disparaging  penman- 
ship as  an  accomplishment  of  a  scholar  is  an  entirely  mistaken  one.  It  is 
true  that  it  cannot  be  considered  as  an  element  of  superior  instruction; 
but  those  who  have  the  direction  of  that  grade  of  instruction,  should  al- 


PHONETICS-  23  L 

•ways  insist  upon  the  completion  of  the  inferior  grades  as  an  indispensable 
prerequisite  for  admission  to  higher  studies.  In  elementary  schools,  pen- 
manship constitutes  a  very  important  branch  of  instruction;  and,  in  these, 
sufficient  time  should  be  given  to  it  to  insure,  at  least,  a  respectable  degree 

of  excellence  to  each  of  the  pupils.  — There  are  various  so-called 
f^l-    ^-'systems  of  teaching  penmanship,  but  the  underlying  principles 

are  the  same  in  all,  the  difference  chiefly  consisting  in  a  diversity 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  elements  of  the  letters,  with  slight  modifications 
in  their  forms  and  mode  of  execution,  and  in  the  exercises  for  practice.  lu 
order  to  write  well,  the  pupil  must  have  (1)  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
forms  of  the  letters,  and  (2)  a  command  of  the  pen  to  execute  them. 
The  two  fundamental  requirements  must  be  made  sinmltaneously,  except 
that  some  previous  elementary  instruction  and  practice  in  drawing  will 
aid  the  pupil  very  much  in  his  first  lessons  in  penmanship.  In  these  les- 
sons, the  forms  should  be  adapted  to  the  pupil's  untrained  muscles,  and 
should  increase  in  complexity  and  difficulty  parzposs?/  with  the  training 
of  the  hand  and  arm.  The  proper  position  of  the  body  and  the  correct 
mode  of  holding  the  pen  are  indispensable  prerequisites  to  successful  work. 
Lessons  in  penmanship  also  presuppose  a  careful  analysis  of  the  elementary 
forms  of  the  letters;  and,  in  this  respect,  systems  greatly  diifer.  They 
have,  however,  many  points  in  common  —  indeed  every  thing  that  is  es- 
sential. Commencing  with  straight  lines,  to  be  made  at  the  proper  slope, 
and  with  perfect  parallelism,  the  pupil  advances  progressively  to  the  jjot- 
hooTc,  the  loop,  the  ellipse,  as  in  the  letter  o,  etc.,  till,  by  practicing  these 
and  their  combinations,  he  has  mastered  all  the  small  letters  of  the  script 
alphabet,  when  he  proceeds,  in  a  similar  manner,  with  the  capitals,  from 
which  he  passes  to  words,  phi-ases,  sentences,  and  paragraphs.  The  copy- 
book should  not  be  used  after  the  pupil  has  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  proper  forms  of  the  letters,  and  thus  acquired  a  fair  style  of 
writing.  Much  time  is  frequently  lost  in  compelling  pupils,  year  after 
year,  to  write  copies.  Quantity  as  well  as  quality  should  be  required; 
excellence  in  penmanship  consisting  both  in  correctness  and  speed  of  exe- 
cution. Many  useful  exercises  may  be  blended  with  practice  in  penman- 
ship, as  the  learning  of  the  forms  used  in  business,  such  as  bills,  receipts, 
modes  of  superscribing  and  addressing  letters,  etc.  Practice  in  calligraphy, 
or  artistic  penmanship,  is  also  of  use,  but  should  not  be  carried  to  an 
extreme  in  schools. 

PHONETICS  (Gr.  ^uvriTim,  from  ^uvij,  voice),  a  term  used  to  denote 
not  only  the  science  of  voice-sounds  [phonology),  but  the  arts  of  phonot- 
ypy  (printing  words  by  their  sounds),  and  phonography  (writing  words 

by  their  sounds).  It  is  also  used  to  designate  phonetic  teach- 
Definition.  -j^g^  ^^  ^.j^g  practical  application  of  phonetics.  In  aU  these  cases, 
the  use  of  the  tovni phonetic  as  an  adjective  is  more  common;  as, phonetic 
science,  phonetic  print,  phonetic  writing,  and  phonetic  teaching.  In  this 
article,  these  will  be  severally  treated  in  the  order  here  enumerated. 

I.  Phonology,  oi:  phonetic  science,  is,  properly,  a  branch  of  the  science 
of  acoustics,  which  embraces  a  consideration  of  the  sounds  used  in  speech, 

as  well  as  those  used  in  singing,  and  in  other  departments  of 

"^2/- music.     Phonology  is  related,  on  the  one  hand,  to  ^/^ysz'oZo//?/, 

as  far  as  the  organs  of  speech,  and  their  action,  are  concerned;  and,  on  the 


232  rilONETICS 

other,  to  pTiilology,  being  now  recognized  by  the  most  eminent  philologists 
as  lying  at  the  very  foundation  of  thai  science,  and  hence  of  much  greater 
importance  than  any  mere  orthographic  etymology  can  be.  This  subject 
can  be  best  ^jresented  and  understood  by  approaching  it  from  the  side  of 
our  own  language,  and  considering  the  elementary  sounds  of 
sowlds""^  that  languag(!  in  their  natural  order  and  relations.  This  will  lay 
a  good  foundation  for  the  study  of  general  phonology,  and  for  a 
comparison  of  the  sounds  of  all  languages.  The  English  language  contains 
nearly  all  the  sounds  needed  for  a  full  outline  of  phonology;  and,  more- 
over, in  AVebster's  and  Worcester's  dictionaries  (now  very  generally  ac- 
cepted as  standards  of  reference,  —  in  the  United  .States,  universally 
adojited  as  such),  there  is  to  be  found  a  complete  analysis  of  these  sounds 
—  one  in  which  they  fully  agree,  though  neither  presents  tiiem  in  their 
natural  order,  giving  them  merely  as  the  particular  sounds  of  the  letters. 
In  arranging  them  according  to  the  latest  results  of  phonetic  science,  we 
may  take  these  distinctions  as  we  find  them  in  the  dictionaries,  where  they 
are  correctly  made:  (1)  the  sixteen  simple  vowel  sounds  heard  in  the  fol- 
lowing words:  fate  (same  as  el  in  veil),  fat,  care,  far,  ask.  oU,  what  (same 
as  o  in  not);  m'-te  (same  as  i  in  pique),  met,  f/n.  note,  whole  [recognized 
as  an  English  sound,  but  not  sanctioned  in  orthoepy],  r((de,  p//ll,  ?/s,  i/rn. 
These  naturally  arrange  themselves  in  the  following  order,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  ic  and  0  from  the  German  to  complete  the  scale: 

VOWELS. 

FrLL  Vowels.  Stopped  Vowels. 

Long,  wlien  afoented.  Staccato  or  exploded. 

Brief,  when  unaccented.  Always  Bhort  in  English. 


FRONT  MIDDLE                  BACK 

BEHIES  SEIilES                 SERIES 

pique  klihn                  rudo 

(1)  i  It                         U 

veil  Goethe            noto 

(2)  C  DO 

care  h^r         all 

(')  ac    0    D 


for 

a 


FRONT  MIDDLE  BACK 

SKRIES  SERIES  SERIES 

fin  Kiinste  pull 

i  U  U 

met  Boecko  ■whole 

e  6  O 

fat  «8         what 


U 


ask 

a 


DIPHTHONGS. 
my  oil  out  tune  wse 

A  m  vu  ill  y 

The  full  and  stopped  vowels  occur  in  pairs,  and  in  three  corresponding 
series,  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

pique        fin  kiihn        Kiinste  r?(do        pull 

\  i  ii  u  II         u 

veil       met  Goetho  Bticko  note        whole 

G  €  0  0  0  0 

care  fat  her  ua  all        what 

03         TJ  0  i>  1)  V 

"far        ask 

a      a 


PHONETICS 


233 


No  distinction  is  made  in  these  tables  between  the  sound  of  e  in  term 
or  i  in  girl,  and  that  of  u  in  urn  or  in  furl.  These  sounds,  however, 
though  kindred,  are  distinguishable,  and  are  so  marked  by  Webster,  who 
says,  "  The  vulgar  universally,  and  many  cultivated  speakers  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  give  the  e  in  such  words  the  full  sound  of  u  in  urgt,  as 
murcy  for  mercy,  turm  for  term,  etc.  But,  in  the  most  approved  style  of 
pronunciation,  the  organs  are  placed  in  a  position  intermediate  between 
that  requisite  for  sounding  u  in.  furl  and  that  for  sounding  e  in  met,  thus 
making  (as  Smart  observes)  'a  compromise  between  the  two'."  The  vowel 
sounds^  as  arranged  in  the  above  tables,  may  be  thus  described.  Starting 
from  the  fundamental  sound,  a  in  far  (or  a  in  asA:),  they  branch  upward 
in  (I)  a  front  series,  with  the  tongue  rising  upward  and  forward,  to  i  in 
pique;  (2)  a  middle  series,  with  the  tongue  rising  to  ii,  directly  upward, 
and  not  pushed  forward  or  backward;  and  (3)  a  back  series,  with  the 
tongue  rising  upward  and  backward  to  u  in  rude.  The  succession  in  the 
order  of  the  sounds  as  judged  by  the  ear,  corresponds  to  that  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  tongue,  as  perceived  by  the  muscular  sense.  The  diphthongs 
are  arranged  below  the  simple  vowels  according  as  they  terminate  in  the 
upper  front  vowel  i  or  the  upper  back  vowel  u.  The  relations  of  the  full 
and  corresponding  stopped  vowels  to  each  other,  as  affected  by  quantity, 
may  be  further  studied  by  the  aid  of  the  following  arrangement  of  words, 
in  which  they  respectively  occur  in  accented  and  unaccented  syllables  (the 
double  letters  indicating  prolonged  sounds) : 

eat        eternal        "kuhn    Ktinste        prude         prudeutia 


mate 

ee 


ee 

care 

aeae 


•BT? 


uu 


it 

i 

maternal 

e 


Goethe 
0 


met 

e 

clairvoyant 
36 


cur 
99 


carry 
"B 


99 


Bocke 

b 


curtail 
9 


UU 
oak 
00 


00 

at/ght 


curry 


vn 


u 


wood 

U 

location 

0 


spoken 

0 
authentic 

D 


not 


part 

aa 


aa 


partake 

a 


ask 

a 


It  may  be  observed  that  the  stopped  vowels  do  not,  and  cannot,  rise 
quite  so  high  in  the  scale  as  their  corresponding  full  vowels;  but  this 
difference  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  in  the  fundamental  pair,  a  a,  and  in 
the  lower  front  pair,  se  v. 

The  following  is  a  synoptical  arrangement  of  consonant  sounds,  some 
German  sounds  being  added,  [a,  indicates  aspirates;  ;,  subtonics;  ?i, nasals; 
/,  liquids;  f,  vowel  consonants] : 


234 


PHONETICS 

CONSONANTS. 

LIP 

LIP- 

TONGUE 

TIP- 

TOP- 

EOOT- 

TEETH 

TEETH 

TONGUE 

TONGUE 

TONGUK 

up 

tone 

chin 

cat 

(a) 

P 

t 

ch 

c 

&e 

do 

jar 

get 

(0 

I) 

d 

J 

or 

ton 

if 

<7aii 

us 

i/ie 

icA 

(a) 

t) 

f 

th 

S 

sh 

^ 

reic 

ueil 

thia 

zone 

uiual 

Tag 

it) 

W 

V 

dh 

Z 

zh 

9 

vie 

no 

senor 

sinp 

(71) 

m 

n 

let  rare 

h 

ng 

(0 

to/iat 

Ir  J 

^e 

(a) 

we 

3/e 

h 

(V) 

W 

y 

For  an  account  of  the  development  of  the  present  method  of  indicating 
these  sounds  in  the  English  language,  the  reader  is  refei-red  to  the  article 

on  ORTnOGRAPHY. 

II.  Phonetic  Print.  —  The  elementary  sounds  of  the  English  language 
are  usually  represented  in  dictionaries  by  diacritical  marks;  but  various 
methods  of  phonotypic  notation,  other  than  this,  have  been  employed. 
That  of  Dr.  Edwin  Leigh  has  been  extensively  used  for  school  purposes, 
and  lias  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  popularity.  An  ingenious 
system  of  representation  approximating  to  the  diacritical,  is  used  in 
Shearer's  Combination  Spetler  (N.  Y.,  1874). 

in.  Phonograph  If,  or  phonetic  icriting.,  in  its  more  general  sense, 
would  include  any  script  in  which  the  letters  are  used  to  denote  sounds; 
but  it  is  now  appropriated,  in  a  special  sense,  to  Pitman's  particular  system 
of  phonetic  short-hand.  It  can  be  studied  in  Pitman's  manuals,  esiiecially 
those  of  18()0  and  186.5;  or  as  it  appears  in  the  text-books  of  Andrews  and 
Boyle  (Fioston,  1846);  Langloy  (Cincinnati,  18.)1).  (iraham  (N.  Y.,  1858), 
Ben  Pitman  (Cincinnati,  1853),  Marsh  (San  Francisco,  1868),  ISfunson 
(N.  Y.,  1866),  and  E.  V.  Burnz  (N.  Y.,  1872).  In  connection  with  any 
of  these  (especially  those  prior  to  l^dO),  Vaxkhuxsi'?,  Stenophonogr a pher 
(N.  Y.,  1852 — 76)  can  be  used,  and  will  give  to  the  investigator,  teacher, 
or  practical  reporter,  the  history  and  discussion  of  the  various  improve- 
ments, proposed  or  made,  since  1852.  —  Phonography,  notwithstanding 
its  many  advantages  over  the  ordinary  script,  has  made  but  little  progress 
since  that  time  as  a  general  method  of  writing,  its  use,  at  ])resent,  being 
almost  exclusively  technical.  Hence,  it  has  not  been  generally  introduced 
as  a  branch  of  instruction,  except  in  commercial  schools,  or  for  the  special 
purposes  of  preparing  for  the  occupation  of  the  reporter. 

IV.  Phonetic  teaching  now  quite  generally  constitutes  a  part  of  the 
lowest  grade  of  elementary  instruction,  its  object  being  to  facilitate  the 


PHONIC  METHOD  —  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  235 

teaching  of  children  to  read.  (See  Phonic  Method.)  By  means  of  phonetic 
exercises,  the  vocal  organs  of  children  are  trained  to  clearness  and  cor- 
rectness of  enunciation,  while  the  ear  is  cultivated  so  as  to  be 
Methods,  ^y^^  readUy  to  distinguish  sounds.  At  the  same  time,  children 
necessarily  acquire  a  better  idea  of  the  use  of  letters  and  of  the  sounds 
which  they  are  employed  to  denote.  Most  educators,  at  the  present  time, 
recommend  this  mode  of  teaching;  although  there  is  some  diversity  in  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  applied.  Beginning  with  simple  words  in  which 
single  letters  are  used  to  denote  simple  sounds,  and  in  which  no  silent  let- 
ters occur,  the  child  is  led  to  perceive  the  use  of  the  letters,  and  to  associate 
with  them  their  proper  sounds,  the  teacher  passes  progressively  to  more 
complex  and  irregular  combinations,  until  the  pupil  is  able  to  analyze 
words  into  their  component  sounds,  and  state  how  these  sounds  are  repre- 
sented. After  such  preliminary  exercises,  in  order  that  the  pupil  may  fully 
understand  the  relations  of  the  sounds  to  each  other,  and  be  systematically 
drilled  in  their  utterance,  all  the  elementary  sounds  must  be  presented 
synoptically.  This  is  done  by  phonetic  charts,  which  should  ex- 
P^'n^ii'^  hibit  (1)  a  logical  enumeration  of  the  elementary  sounds,  illus- 
trated by  their  use  in  well-chosen  words;  and  (2)  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet  with  their  various  sounds,  and  diphthongal  combinations. 
Tery  many  of  the  faults  in  articulation  so  frequently  met  with  may  be 
prevented  or  removed  by  persistent  drilling  in  the  elementary  sounds. 
These  phonetic  drills  may  comprise  exercises  in  the  vowel  sounds  by  them- 
selves; but  the  consonant  sounds  are  often  most  effectively  practiced  in 
combinations  with  vowels.  In  teaching  persons,  whether  children  or 
adults,  to  pronounce  a  foreign  language,  this  training  is  indispensable.  Of 
course,  it  should  be  preceded  by  a  careful  investigation  into  the  particular 
defects  which  constitute  what  is  called  the  "  foreign  accent",  so  that  the 
elementary  sounds  involved  may  be  made  the  special  subject  of  the  drill. 
Phonetic  analysis  should  not  cease  in  the  lower  grades,  but  should,  at  every 
stage,  constitute  a  part  of  the  regular  reading  or  elocutionary  exercises. 
Like  the  fingers  of  the  pianist  or  violinist,  the  vocal  organs  need  constant 
technical  exercise  in  order  that  they  may  perform  their  office  most  effect- 
ively. The  enunciation  of  the  open  vowel  sounds  constitutes  a  most  im- 
portant part  of  vocal  training.     (See  Voice,  Culture  of  the.) 

PHONIC  METHOD,  a  term  applied  to  a  method  of  teaching  read- 
ing, in  accordance  with  which  pupils  are  taught,  in  pronouncing  words, 
to  use  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  instead  of  their  names,  so  that  they  may 
at  once  perceive  the  result  of  combination,  and  thus  without  difficulty  give 
the  correct  pronunciation.  For  example,  when  the  pupil  is  required  to 
pronounce  the  Avord  dog,  he  does  not  say  de-o-gejdog,  but  gives  to  each  let- 
ter the  proper  sound,  phonetically,  and  thus  at  once  pronounces  the  word 
dog  as  the  necessary  product  of  the  elements  thus  combined.  This 
method  is  considered  by  teachers  to  possess  many  advantages  over  the  old- 
fashioned  way  of  compelling  the  pupils  to  learn  the  names  of  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  then  teaching  them  to  read  by  spelling  exercises. 
(See  Orthography.) 

PHONICS.     See  Orthography,  and  Phonetics. 
PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  may  be  defined  as  that  systematic  train- 
ing of  the  bodily  powers  which  tends  to  render  them,  in  the  highest  pos- 


236  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

sible  degree  efficient  in  their  several  functions.  The  necessity  for  this 
training  is  generally  acknowledged,  as  a  basis  for  the  higher  departments 
of  education.  Among  the  ancients  —  the  Persians,  the  Greeks, 
Bejinition.  .^^^  ^j^^,  ijomans,  especially,  the  highest  respect  was  accorded 
to  physical  culture;  and  the  means  employed  Avere  generally  well  adapted 
totlie  purpose,  although  merely  empirical;  but,  at  the  present  time,  the  re- 
searches of  science  ought  to  supply  a  far  better  and  more  accurate  basis 
for  an  effective  system  of  bodily  training.  —  Physical  education  looks  to 
two  objects:  (1)  to  encourage  a  normal  development  of  bodily  powers;  and 
(2)  to  check  morbid  growth.  Incidentally  to  these,  of  course, 
Objects.  ^YiQ  preservation  of  health,  that  is,  protection  against  disease,  is 
an  important  object;  since  a  condition  of  health  is  the  foundation  upon 
which  all  physical  culture  must  rest;  indeed,  if  children  are  successfully 
protected  from  morbid  influences  and  disturbances,  normal  development 
must  result. 

(I)  'J'he  application  of  appropriate  means  to  stimulate  or  guide  the  de- 
velopment of  the  bodily  powers  constitutes  what  is  called  pAysjca/^ramtn.^. 
This  training  may  be  (1)  general,  or  (2)  special.  Up  to  a  certain 
Physical  ^gg  ^11  physical  exercise  must  have  for  its  object  general  develop- 
trainmg.  ^^g^^..  beyond  that,  the  sjK'cial  purpose  of  the  training  must  dic- 
tate the  nature  of  the  exercise  to  be  employed.  Military  drill,  it  is  true, 
is  often  employed  in  schools  to  promote  general  development,  but  there  is 
very  much  required  in  military  discipline  that  is  quite  unnecessary  for  or- 
dinary physical  culture.  The  importance  of  systematic  exercise  has  been 
considered  in  the  articles  calistheuics  and  gymnastics  (q.v.).  Such  exer- 
cise, however,  must  not  look  exclusively  to  muscular  development;  but  to 
the  prompt  use  of  muscular  power  iii  obedience  to  the  dictates  of  mind. 
Such  power  systematically  exercised  in  any  given  direction  becomes  al- 
most automatic,  as  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  skillful  oarsman,  rider,  or 
swordsman;  or  in  adepts  in  athletic  games,  such  as  those  of  ball  aiid  cricket. 
All  such  means  of  physical  culture  become  of  special  value,  as  bringing  the 
powers  of  the  body  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  will;  and,  hence, 
under  the  name  athletics,  they  have  been  generally  encouraged  by  those 
who  have  the  direction  of  superior  education.  In  the  same  category,  are 
to  be  placed  the  exercises  which  regard  the  due  development  of  other  phys- 
ical powers,  as  the  senses,  the  vocal  organs,  the  lungs,  and,  in  a  closer  re- 
lation to  intellectual  education,  the  brain.  Educators  err  greatly  in  for- 
getting that  the  brain  is  a  physical  organ,  and  that  its  exercise  is  subject 
to  the  same  laws  and  to  the  same  limitations  as  other  bodily  organs:  and 
that,  therefore,  physical  considerations  should  have  a  controlling  weight  in 
determining  the  means  and,  to  some  extent,  the  methods  of  intellectual 
training.  (See  Brai.v.)  Many  arc  inclined  to  regard  the  direction  of  phys- 
ical training  as  unnecessary.  They  think  that  the  physical  powers  of 
children  and  youth  receive,  in  the"  instinctive  and  irrepressible  exercises 
natural  to  that  age,  a  sufFicient  education  for  ordinary  purposes.^  From 
this  view  ari.ses  a  neglect  which  is  fraught  with  serious  injury.  Not  only 
does  the  imlividualfail  to  act  appropriately  and  energetically  at  every 
trying  period  of  his  life;  but,  in  most  cases,  his  action  falls  somewhat  below 
wdiat^is  required  for  effective  results,  through  want  of  the  full  co-operation 
uf  the  bodily  powers;  and,  toward  the  close  of  life,  deciepitudc  is  accelerated 


PHYSIOLOGY  237 

by  the   partial   atrophy  occasioned  by   imperfect  development  and  by 
disuse. 

(2)  To  check  morbid  growth  or  to  prevent  disease,  careful  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  surroundings  of  the  child,  particularly  in  school;  aa 
there  he  is  subjected  to  constant  restraint,  and,  hence,  cannot 
•     fh     ^xsrcise  his  natural  instincts  which  would  prompt  him  to  es- 
"     cape    from  such  surroundings.     The  preservation  of  children 
from  morbid  influences  in  school  depends  upon  a  great  variety  of  circum- 
stances, for  a  full  enumeration  of  which,  see  Hygiene,  School.   The  prac- 
tical aim  of  physical  education,  under  the  influence  of  modern  life,  is  al- 
most always  intellectual.    Gyumastics  and  calisthenics,  however,  indirectly 
exert  a  moral  influence  which,  of  itself,  makes  their  practice  desirable. 
This  is  that  magnanimity  which  is  produced  in  generous  minds 
Eelation    ^y.  ^-^^  consciousness  of  bodily  health  and  power,  and  a  dispo- 
sition to  use  that  power  worthily.     A  feeling  of  inferiority  has 
always  associated  with  it  an  element  of  immorality,  which  leads  its  posses- 
sor to  acts  of  duplicity  and  meanness  to  preserve  his  equality.   There  is  stiU 
another  phase  of  physical  education  to  be  considered  —  that  which  relates 
to  the  joint  action  of  the  mind  and  body  through  the  medium  of  the  senses. 
(See  Ear;  Eye;  and  Senses,  Education  of.)     The  minute  subdivision  of 
labor  characteristic  of  the  age  in  which  we  live,  by  giving  a 
TJie  senses,  utilitarian  value  to  the  cultivation  of  the  senses  is  rapidly  con- 
stituting this  an  element  of  increasing  importance.      Already,  the  success 
of  numerous  trades  and  employments  is  dependent  upon  a  nicety  of  discrim- 
ination  by  means  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  taste,  or  the  touch;  and  the 
number  of  these  is   steadily  increasing.      The  cultivation  of  the  senses, 
therefore,  is  desirable  from  a  merely  utilitarian  point  of  view;  while  for  gen- 
eral culture,  such  as  is  required  in  many  of  the  arts,  its  absolute  necessity 
is  manifest.      Many  considerations  and   interests,  therefore,  conspire  to 
make  the  subject   of  physical   education   one   of   constantly  increasing 
importance. 

PHYSIOLOGY  (Gr.  ^rcrtf,  nature,  and  Myoc,  discourse),  the  science 
which  treats  of  vital   phenomena  —  as  contradistinguished   from  cmat- 
omy,  which  treats   of  the  structure  of  living  bodies  and  the  materials 
of  which  they  are  composed.      In  the   course  of   education,  it  presup- 
poses some  preliminary  knowledge  of  chemistry,  physics,  anatomy,  and 
especially   of   microscopic   anatomy,  or  histology;  and,  in   turn,   it   pre- 
cedes the  study  of  hygiene,  or  the  laws  of  health,  and  that  of  pathology, 
or  the  science   of  abnormal   function.     As  a  science,  physiology  is  of 
recent  origin,  though  the  name  has  been  in  use  from  antiquity.    Like 
aU  other  natural  sciences,  as  Dalton  observes,  "  there  is  only 
t^d^^d      ^^^  rneans  by  which  physiology  can  be  studied;  that  is,  by 
the  observation  of  nature".    It  has  been  built  up  by  experiment; 
and  many  of  its  most  essential  truths,  and  these  in  their  practical  results 
the  most  important  to  mankind,  have  been  gained  through  vivisection.   As 
the  principal  foundation  of  hygiene,  it  is  obvious  that  its  principles  should 
be  so  far  made  an  element  of  general  education  as  may  conduce  to  a  just 
appreciation  of  nature's  sanitary  code.    How  this  may  best  be  accomplished 
School     is  ^  question  that  has  hardly    received  the   attention   it   de- 
physiology. serves.     School  physiology,  in  many  cases,  consists  of  a  smat- 


238  PICTUllES 

tcriiig  of  anatomy;  in  others,  of  a  still  more  unsubstantial  fabric  of  in- 
formation regarding  function;  or,  in  still  others,  of  a  blending  of  the  two 
with  hygienic  doctrines,  often  based  not  on  a  wide  conception  of  biological 
truths,  but  on  the  meager  knowledge  gained  by  personal  experience.  The 
difficulty  lias  always  consisted  in  attempting  to  build  upon  too  narrow  a 
foundation,  and  tliat  by  means  of  an  erroneous  method.  Thus,  the  attempt 
is  made  to  teach  the  elements  of  physiology  without  a  sufficient  ground- 
work of  chemistry  and  physics,  and  exclusively  from  books,  instead  of  from 
practical  experience  in  the  laboratory.  The  results  have  been  —  as  those 
of  book  learning  and  lecture  teaching  in  natural  science,  without  observa- 
tion and  experiment,  always  must  be  —  unreal  and  evanescent;  hence,  by 
such  instruction  the  true  nature  of  vital  phenomena  is  never  clearly  appre- 
hended; and  the  hygienic  deductions  are,  of  course,  correspondingly  il- 
logical. Doubtless,  a  great  amount  of  knowledge  has  been  imparted,  in 
these  later  days,  to  the  people  in  general  on  this  subject;  but  the  advance 
that  has  been  made  in  sanitary  practice  is,  probably,  due  not  so  much  to 
the  results  of  school  education,  as  to  the  improved  education  of  medical 
men,  and  to  their  advice  spoken  and  written  to  communities,  learning  by 
practical  experience  the  jjenalty  of  infringing  hygienic  laws.  'J'he  real 
requisite  in  general  education  on  this  subject  appears  to  be,  that,  when  a 
sufficient  foundation  has  been  laid,  a  practical  cour.se  of  biology 

oogy.  gijQui(j  ijg  employed  to  elucidate  the  general  laws  of  life;  and 
then  the  habit  of  scientific  thought  and  reasoning,  formed  by  such  training, 
will  lead  to  a  correct  application  of  general  principles  to  the  special  condi- 
tions of  human  life.  Bome  such  course  of  biological  study  as  !k  Covrse  of 
Practical  Lislructlon  in  Elementary  Biolor/i/,  by  Huxley  and  Martin, 
might  properly  form  a  part  of  the  curriculum  of  every  collegiate  institution; 
and,  in  all  schools  of  a  lower  grade,  as  much  preparation  should  be  made 
for  such  a  course  as  is  practicable.  Objective  teaching,  in  outline,  of  anat- 
omy, by  the  dissection  of  the  lower  animals,  accompanied  by  such  simjile 
practical  suggestions  as  arise  from  the  interpretation  of  the  mechanical  ar- 
rangements of  the  body,  may  be  early  connnenced;  but,  in  all  cases,  this 
foundation  should  be  laid  systematically,  with  a  definite  end  in  view,  and 
by  instructors  who  have  qualified  themselves  to  teach,  by  following  a 
comijlete  practical  course,  such  as  is  above  suggested.  Teaching  merely 
from  text-books  and  by  pictures,  Avill  be  almo.st  useless,  because 
'^^''*' superficial;  and  no  demonstrations,  even  from  the  best  models, 
can  ever  be  so  effective  as  those  from  actual  dissections  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals. A  pupil  will  gain  a  better  idea  of  the  appearances  presented  by  his 
own  organs,  and  of  their  own  relations  to  one  another,  from  seeing  a 
demonstration  of  those  of  a  rabbit  or  a  dog,  for  example,  than  from  any 
rigid,  and  necessarily  unreal,  model,  however  skillfully  constructed  and 
colored.  Such  models,  liowever,  admirably  subserve  secondary  demon- 
strations. —  For  a  list  of  works  of  reference,  see  Ci/clopcpdia  of  Education. 

PICTURES.     One  of  the  earliest  efforts  of  the  human  mind,  after 

spoken  language,  a^ipears  to  be  the  communication  of  ideas  by  tangible  ob- 

jects.     The  use  of  pictures  and  images  is  common  among  sav- 

se  oj.  ^^^g  everj'-where.  Jt  is  no  less  characteristic  of  the  infant  mind 
among  civilized  races,  children  being  not  only  interested  in  looking  at 
pictures,  but,  by  a  natural  pronq^tinfr.  attempting  to  imitate  them.     The 


POETEY  239 

first  ideas  ■whicli  the  child  takes  from  objects  being  concrete,  its  means  of 
expressing  them  takes  the  concrete  form  —  its  first  effort  being,  as  near  as 
possible,  a  reproduction  of  the  objects  themselves.  Kot  till  a  higher  devel- 
opment has  been  reached,  is  it  fitted  to  make  use  of  a  system  in  which 
purely  arbitrary  forms  are  employed.  This  early  and  almost  universal 
instinct,  therefore,  involving,  as  it  must,  the  ability  to  understand  ideas  so 
communicated,  suggests  the  peculiar  fitness  of  this  method  for  use  in  the 
instruction  of  children.  This  form  of  expression  being  attended  with  so 
much  pleasure,  it  finds  its  natural  place  in  the  kindergarten  system;  and 
we  find,  accordingly,  various  exercises  there  for  the  employment  of  it.  It 
is  even  extended  into  the  ordinary  school  system  in  the  shape  of  object 
J.  ...  lessons.  But  this  method,  useful  as  it  is  at  certain  stages,  has 
Limitations,  -^g  limitations.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that,  with  children, 
the  object  itself,  for  purposes  of  instruction,  is  always  better  than  any 
representation  of  it.  As  the  picture  of  an  animal,  for  instance,  is  only  one 
phase  of  the  form  of  that  animal,  and  does  not  usually  take  into  considera- 
tion size,  color,  and  many  other  essential  qualities,  only  a  very  imperfect 
_  impression  can  be  gained  from  it.  This  fact  should  suggest  the  limitations 
mentioned.  These  have  reference  principally  to  the  end  to  be  attained,  to 
the  correctness  of  the  picture,  and  the  number  and  nature  of  the  objects 
represented.  As  to  the  correctness  of  the  picture,  little  need  be  said;  as 
modern  publications,  in  this  respect,  show  a  constant  improvement,  and 
leave  little  to  be  desired.  The  number  of  objects  represented  in  each 
pictixre  should  be  limited,  single  figures  being,  at  first,  given;  afterwards 
two  or  three.  The  objects  represented,  also,  should  be  familiar  things,  and 
several  of  a  kind,  inasmuch  as,  by  the  contemplation  of  these,  the  child's 
conceptive  faculty,  or  imagination,  and  powers  of  generalization  are  exer- 
cised. In  this  respect,  also,  the  right  method  in  primers  and  elementary 
books,  is,  as  a  rule,  instinctively  taken  —  though  not  always.  The  value 
of  this  last  restriction,  at  a  later  period,  may  be  easily  illustrated.  If  the 
object  be  to  give  an  idea  of  some  animal  never  seen  —  the  camel,  for 
instance- — the  task  is  made  comparatively  easy  from  the  child's  having 
seen  illustrations  of  somewhat  similar  objects  with  which  it  is  familiar;  as 
the  horse,  cow,  etc.  It  seizes  at  once  upon  the  points  of  resemblance,  and, 
immediately  after,  upon  the  points  of  difference,  and  thus  makes  a  positive 
addition  to  its  knowledge.  But  let  the  same  child  be  confronted  with  a 
picture  of  a  star-fish,  or  a  printing-press,  and  the  probability  is,  if  it  has 
never  seen  these  or  any  similar  objects,  that  it  will  get  only  a  very  imper- 
fect idea  of  either.  The  reason  is  obvious.  With  no  previous  preparation, 
it  is  called  upon  to  establish  in  its  mind  au  entirely  new  conception,  solely 
from  the  picture,  without  any  corresponding  tangible  basis  in  its  experience. 
The  result  is  a  thwarting  of  the  tendency  to  generalization  —  so  strong  with 
children  always —  and  a  confusing  of  the  mind  by  an  indistinct  conception, 
invariably  accompanied  with  a  loss  of  interest.  The  special  uses  to  which 
pictures  are  put,  whether  as  diagrams  in  illustration  of  particular  studies, 
or  as  part  of  a  higher,  artistic  education,  need  not  here  be  considered. 

POETRY,  or  the  written  expression  of  beauty,  is  an  important  instru- 
ment in  certain  departments  of  intellectual  culture,  besides  aiding  in  the 
education  of  the  emotions  and  sensibilities,  and  in  the  cultivation  of  taste. 
(See  Esthetic  Culture.)     The  pupil's  first  knowledge  of  written  poetry 


210  POETRT 

is  usually  obtained  from  the  school  reader.  The  manner  of  its  presentation 
there,  however,  is  susceptible  of  improvement.    The  free  use  of  figures  of 

rhetoric,  and  of  obsolete  or  vinusual  words  and  phrases,  renders 
Mode  of  poetry  inappropriate  to  the  minds  of  children  till  after  the  usual 
^^tion  ^'  ™*^'i6'^  '^f  expression  have  become  fartiiliar.     Its  proper  time  for 

presentation,  therefore,  is  when  rhetoric  is  studied  —  that  is,  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  high-school  course,  or  in  the  college.  Yet  nothing 
is  more  common  than  to  find  a  highly-involved  passage  from  Shakespeare, 
or  an  abstruse  paragraph  from  Wordsworth,  in  a  reader  intended  for  pupils 
of  from  ten  to  fifteen  years  of  age.  Some  vague  or  half-considered  idea 
that  these  passages  are,  in  some  way,  to  serve  as  models,  by  being  thus 
presented,  or  are  necessary  for  elocutionary  purposes,  is  probably  in  the 
mind  of  the  compiler.  But  what  should  we  think  of  the  music  teacher 
who  should  present  a  symphony  of  Beethoven,  as  a  model,  to  a  beginner 
practicing  the  scales  ?  'J'he  parallel  case  is  quite  as  absurd.  The  result  is 
,       bad  in  two  ways:  (1)  the  unintelligibility,  to  the  child,  of  such 

a  poetical  selection  deprives  it  of  all  use  as  a  model;  and  (2)  the 
disgust  thus  occasioned  becomes  permanent,  and  leads  the  pupil,  even  in 
manhood,  to  avoid  a  reperusal  of  the  author  thus  used.  How  many  per- 
sons, of  mature  years,  date  their  dislike  to  Milton,  for  instance,  from  an 
enforced  use  of  his  works  as  reading  or  parsing  exercises  in  early  youth  ! 

The  introduction  of  poetry  into  the  school  curriculum  should 
ae'slions     ^o^^ow  the  natural  plan,  the  first  poems  used  being  exceedingly 

simple,  containing  no  words  beyond  the  vocabulary  of  the  child, 
and  treating  of  subjects  and  objects  of  evcry-day  familiarity.  An  excel- 
lent plan  would  be  to  place,  as  an  introductory  lesson  in  reading,  a  para- 
phrase in  prose  of  the  poem  to  be  used.  In  this  way,  the  pupil,  being 
possessed  beforehand  of  the  meaning  of  what  he  is  approaching,  is  at 
liberty  to  give  more  attention  to  the  poetical  mode  of  expression,  this  being 
the  principal  thing  to  be  considered;  for,  if  the  meaning  were  the  prin- 
cipal thing,  prose  would  be  preferable  —  it  being  more  direct  and  in  more 
familiar  language.  The  fact  that  rhythmical  language  is.  in  many  cases, 
J,  .  .  of  assistance  to  the  memory,  indicates  its  peculiar,  fitness  for 
value,      certain  educational  purposes.     By  its  aid,  abstract  truths  and 

arbitrary  rules  may  often  be  fixed  in  the  mind,  in  a  way  not 
possible  by  any  otlier.  Moral  truths,  also,  may  often  be  better  retained  in 
the  memory  by  their  expression  in  rhythmical  form.  The  experience  of 
most  persons  will  probably  furnish  illustrations  of  this  fact.  There  appears 

to  be  a  limit  to  this  use  of  rhyme,  however,  determined  partly  by 
rhvme  *'"-'  nature  of  the  things  to  be  remembered,  and  partly  by  the  es- 
thetic effect  produced  by  such  use.  It  may  be  said,  in  general, 
that  all  concrete  ideas  and  relations,  —  those  which,  upon  suggestion,  call  up 
in  the  mind  material  images  —  do  not  require  the  aid  of  rliyme  to  fix  them 
in  the  memory;  while  ideas  and  relations  of  an  essentially  abstract  or 
arbitrary  nature,  are  more  ca.sily  retained  in  the  memory  by  a  rhythmical 
expression  of  them.  As  an  illustration  of  a  violation  of  the  first  proposi- 
tion, may  be  mentioned  a  rhymed  text-book  on  geography.  In  tlie  study 
of  geography,  the  definitions,  descriptions,  etc.,  being  always  accompanied 
by  pictures  and  maps,  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  by  the  eye  —  the  most 
effective  of  all  the  agents  used  in  acquiring  knowledge.     To  call  in  the  aid 


PRAXIS  —  PRIMER  241 

of  the  ear,  therefore,  is  superfluous,  and  tends,  rather,  to  distraction.  If 
there  had  been  originally  any  vagueness  of  conception  left  by  the  image 
addressed  to  the  eye,  the  ear  might,  with  propriety,  be  called  in  to  aid  it; 
but,  from  the  nature  of  things,  this  is  impossible.  The  picture  of  a 
material  object  will  always  present  to  the  mind  a  clearer  idea  of  it,  th.in 
any  verbal  description.  A  further  objection,  in  this  case,  is 
oblecUm  *'^^*  ^^®  rhymed  version,  degenerating,  as  it  is  almost  sure  to 
do,  into  grotesque  doggerel,  familiarizes  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
with  the  most  degraded  form  of  poetry,  and  tends  to  unfit  it  for  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  higher.  In  regard  to  the  second  proposition  mentioned 
above,  it  may  be  said  that  we  naturally  seek  some  short,  succinct  form  for 
expressing  generalizations,  and  abstract  and  arbitrary  relations,  which  shall 
make  them  convenient  for  use;  and  that  form  is  often  found.  If  the  poetic 
form  would  enable  us  to  remember  them  more  distinctly,  and  if  no  objec- 
tion to  its  use  could  be  raised,  it  would  be  allowable;  but  if  this  form, 
besides  adding  little  to  our  ability  to  remember,  is  open  to  the  additional 
objection  that  it  presents  to  the  undiscriminating  mind  of  the  pupil  a  bad 
poetical  model,  it  woidd  seem  that  it  ought  not  to  be  used.  It  can  hardly 
be  claimed  that  rhymed  versions  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  or  of  the  Proverbs, 
for  instance  —  of  the  propositions  of  geometry,  or  of  the  rules  of  arith- 
metic, have  helped  us  materially  to  learn  more  readily  or  appreciate  more 
fully  the  truths  contained  in  them.  The  very  nature  of  some  truths  is 
averse  to  ornament;  and  the  use  of  it,  in  such  cases,  should  be  discounte- 
nanced. A  frequent  result  of  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  which 
„  underlies  all  poetry,  is  the  attempt  of  youth  sooner  or  later  to 

voetrv  "^^ite  poetry.  Every  teacher's  experience  will  supply  instances 
of  this.  This  inclination  usually  makes  its  appearance  between 
the  ages  of  15  and  20,  in  minds  that  have  a  natural  taste  for  beautiful 
objects,  after  a  considerable  command  of  language  has  been  obtained,  and 
before  the  realities  of  life  have  come  to  darken,  with  their  shadows,  the 
bi'ight  sky  of  youth.  As  not  one  in  a  hundred,  however,  of  those  who 
write  verses,  at  this  age,  will  become  a  poet,  the  teacher's  course  is  plain. 
His  method  of  cure  should  be,  unsparing  criticism,  but  applied  in  a 
kindly  spirit.  It  will  require  only  a  few  exposures  of  bad  rhymes,  false 
similes  and  metaphors  —  and  of  these,  the  most  preposterous  will  generally 
be  found  to  be  the  most  cherished  by  the  writer  —  to  recall  the  would-be 
poet  to  a  more  sober  and  useful  pursuit. 

PRAXIS  (Gr.  Tzpdiiq,  from  ivpaaaeiv,  to  do),  a  particular  form  of 
exercise  designed  to  aiford  practice  to  the  pupils;  as  a  praxis  for  parsing 
or  analysis,  in  teaching  grammar. 

PREPARATORY  SCHOOLS,  schools  for  secondary  instruction, 
in  wliich  pupils  are  prepared  for  admission  to  the  college  or  university. 

PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION.     See  Education. 

PRIMER  (Lat.  liber  primarius,  a  little  book  containing  the  offices 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  so  called  because  used  at  prime — prima 
liora  —  the  first  hour),  originally  a  small  book  of  prayers,  or  for  element- 
ary religious  instruction,  but.  at  the  present  time,  an  elementary  reading- 
book  of  the  lowest  grade.  The  literature  relating  to  primers,  or  A-B-C 
books,  is  very  curious  and  interesting,  some  of  these  books  having  had 
great  fame  on  account  of  their  long  and  extensive  use.     One  of  the  very 


242  PRIZES  —  PUNISHMENT 

earliest  was  Luther's  (or  IMelanchthon's)  Child's  LiHle  Primer,  containing 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  etc.     In  1534.  a  Prymer  in  Englyshe  with  certain 
prayers,  etc.,  was  printed  by  John  Byddell;  and,  in  1.545,  King  Henry 
VIII.  ordered  an  English  Form  of  Public    Prayer,  or  Primer,  to  be 
printed;  and  to  be  "  taught,  lerned,  and  red"  throughout  his  dominions. 
Bienrod's    primer,   containing  an   illustrated  alphabet,  was  the  earliest 
publication  of  this  kind  in  German,  dating  back  to  the  middle  of  the  IGth 
century.     The  horn-book  was  the  simplest  and  most  noted  of  primers. 
^See  Horn-Book,  and  Christ  Cross  Row.)     The  Royal  Primer  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  New  England  Primer  also  had  great  fame. 
PRIZES.     See  Emulation. 
PROGRAMME.     See  School  Managkment. 
PROMOTION.     See  School  Management. 

PSYCHOLOGY  (Gr.  i/'*VT'/i  soul,  and  loyog,  discourse),  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  human  soul  and  its  manifestations,  that  is,  of  the  phe- 
.  nomena  of  intelligence,  sensibility,  and  will.  It  embraces  a 
jjefinition.  consideration  of  all  that  pertains  to  the  inner  consciousness  of 
man,  whether  derived  from  external  or  sensuous  impression,  or  from  the 
intuitions  and  activities  of  the  soul  itself,  considered  as  the  conscious  ego 
animating,  informing,  and  employing  the  material  form,  or  body.  "Psy- 
chology", says  President  Porter — -in  The  Human  Intellect  (1869)  —  ''is 
a  science.  It  professes  to  exhibit  what  is  actually  known  or  may  be  learned 
concerning  the  soul,  in  the  forms  of  science  —  i.  e.,  in  the  forms  of  exact 
observation,  precise  definition,  fixed  terminology,  classified  arrangement, 
and  rational  explanation".  Psychology  embraces  a  wider  field  of  research 
than  mental  and  moral  philosophy,  for  it  comprehends  the  whole  science 
of  human  consciousness,  and  is  concurrent  with  anthropology  as  far  as  the 
latter  treats  of  the  soul  and  its  relations  to  the  body.  Those  manifesta- 
tions of  intelligence  which  are  based  upon  the  observation  of  external 
things  are  the  pecviliar  field  of  intellectual  science,  but  the  vast  field  of 
intuition  is  the  peculiar  sj^here  of  psychological  investigation;  for  it  is 
upon  a  careful  study  of  the  inner  perceptions  and  the  independent  activities 
of  the  soul  itself,  that  we  must  rely  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  its  nature 
and  its  relation  to  the  Universe  and  its  Creator. 

Education  as  a  complete  science  must  rest  upon  psychology,  and  can 
never  reach  its  full  development  in  theory  and  practice  until  psychological 
investigation  has  been  carried  beyond  its  present  stage  of  prog- 
edcatio  ^^^'  *"^  ^^^  f^i^^y  developed  the  principles  needed  for  the 
construction  of  a  complete  practical  system.  Such  a  system 
would  constitute  the  art  corresponding  to  the  science  which  President 
Porter  in  the  above  cited  definition  outlines,  and  would  place  the  practical 
educator  in  possession  of  the  principles  and  rules  requisite  for  tiie  aid  and 
guidance  of  tiie  soul  in  developing  itself  in  all  its  relations  —  intellectual, 
ethical,  and  spiritual.  —  This  subject  is  in  this  work  treated  in  detail  in 
.separate  articles.  (See  Education,  Instruction,  Intellectual  Education, 
Physical  P^ducation,  etc.) 

PUNISHMENT  is  the  intentional  infliction  of  pain  for  the  purpose 

of  controlling  the  will,  either  to  compel  action  or  to  restrain  it.     In  educa- 

tion  this  is  often  requisite,  for  the  sake  both  of  the  pupil  and 

Vejinea.     q£  ^^iq  gchooL     Lawlessness  would  prevail  were  every  individ- 


PUNISHMENT  243 

nal  allowed,  without  restraint,  to  exercise  his  own  self-will.     There  must 
be  authority,  and  that  authority  must  be  recognized  and  enforced.     (See 
Authority.  )    The  proper  disciph'ne  of  the  pupils  requires  that 
vunisliment  *^^^^  should  be  brought  under  control,  either  by  means  of  agen- 
'cies  that  will  lead  to  self-control,  as  appeals  to  reason  and  con- 
science, or  to  other  motives,  such  as  the  love  of  approbation,  the  desire  to 
excel,  the  hope  of  reward,  etc.     Where  these  fail,  appeal  must  be  made  to 
.        the  sense  of  fear,  through  the  apprehension  of  mental  or  physical 
vuin'^    pain.    This,  as  being  the  lowest  principle  to  which  recourse  may 
be  had,  should  be  the  last,  and  should  always  be  employed  by 
the  teacher  with  great  reluctance  and  with  the  greatest  possible  caution. 
(See  Fear.) 

Where  it  can  be  made  effectual,  the  best  form  of  punishment  is  censure, 

which  may  be  expressed  by  direct  reproof,  by  demerit  marks,  or  by  public 

disgrace.    Eeproof,  to  be  effective,  should  be  sparing,  and  never 

ensure,    administered  in  tones  of  anger  or  irritation,  as  if  the  teacher 

had  suffered  some  personal  grievance,  and  were  vindicating  himself  rather 

than  pointing  out  and  condemning  the  fault  of  the  pupil.     The  teacher's 

personality  must  be  eliminated  in  administering  punishment,  except  as  far 

as  he  may  make  apparent  his  sorrow  that  punishment  is  necessary,  and 

his  regret  that  it  is  his  duty  to  inflict  it.     The  object  must  be  felt  by  the 

pupil  to  be  chastisement  and  correction,  not  vindictiveness,  or  the  desire 

to  avenge  offended  dignity  or  authority.    Constant  scolding  is  exceedingly 

injurious  to  the  pupil,  and  of  no  efficacy  whatever;  nor  can  the 

^-co   mg.    attempt  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  be  approved  to  wound  the 

feelings  of  the  pupil  by  satirical  or  sarcastic  remarks;    for  the  latter 

instinctively  feels  that  this  is  a  mean  advantage  taken  by  the 

'  '^"^^^^^-  teacher  both  of  his  position  and  of  his  superior  ability. 

Demerit  marks  have  the  advantage  of  definiteness  in  expressing,  and  in 
a  way  that  is  unanswerable,  if  just,  —  the  amount  of  censure  administered 
.     for  neglect  or  wrong-doing;  and,  when  these  are  required  to  be 
mcu-l's      exhibited  to  parents,  the  punishment  may  be  very  severe.  Forms 
of  disgrace,  humiliating  positions,  or  badges,  may  be  rendered 
exceedingly  painful  to  some  minds;  while  others  would  only  be  hardened 
by  them.  Extreme  caution  is  required  in  employing  this  kind  of  punishment. 
The  character  of  the  pupil  should  be  carefully  studied,  and  the 
disarace    ^^^^*  watched.    Delicacy  of  feeling  and  self-respect  in  the  pupil 
are  never  to  be  sacrificed  for  a  temporary  advantage.     Deten- 
tion and  the  imposition  of  tasks  are  also  to  be  resorted  to  with  care,  or 
the  school  may  become  to  the  pupil  a  hateful  place. 

As  to  corporal  punishment,  the  lowest  form  of  all,  there  is  great  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  educators  regarding  the  propriety  of  ever  resorting 
to  it  in  schools.      D.  P.  Page,  an  educator  of  long  experience, 
Corporal  great  moral  force,  and  singular   kindliness  of  nature,  fully  ad- 
^^J^l       mitted  the  necessity  of  corporal  punishment  as  a  last  resort. 
"I  do  not  hesitate",  he  saj's,  '"to  teach  that  corporal  infliction  is 
one  of  the  justifiable  means  of  establishing- authority  in  the  school-room. 
To  this  conclusion  I  have  come  after  a  careful  consideration  of  the  subject, 
modified  by  the  varied  experience  of  nearly  twenty  years,  and  by  a  some- 
what attentive  observation  of  the  workings  of  all  the  plans  which  have 


244  PUNISHMENT 

been  devised  to  avoid  its  use  or  to  supply  its  place".  Horace  Mann,  one 
of  the  most  enthusiastic  advocates  of  moral  suasion,  yet  recognized  the 
necessity  of  corporal  punishment  in  some  cases.   "  I'unisinnent",  he  says, 
"should  never  be  inflicted  except  in  cases  of  the  extremest  necessity;  while 
the  experiment  of  sympathy,  confidence,  persuasion,  encouragement,  should 
be  repeated  forever  and  ever".     An  P^nglish  teacher  says,  "It  is  necessary 
for  a  child  to  learn  that  violation  of  law,  whether  of  school,  society,  or 
God,  brings  inevitable  suffering.      The  sense  of  right  is  so  imperfectly 
developed  in   children,  that  one  of  the  ways  of  impressing  upon  a  child 
that  right  is  right,  and  wrong  is  wrong,  is  by  showing  that  suffering  fol- 
lows from  one,  enjoyment  and  a  sense  of  satisfaction  from  the  other". 
[The  Educational  Reporter,  London,  July  1.,  1874.)      Corporal  punish- 
nient  is  sanctioned  by  Rosenkranz  in  Pedagogics  as  a  Si/aleyn.      "This 
kind  of  punishment",  he  says,  "provided  always  that  it  is  not  too  often  ad- 
ministered, or  with  undue  severity,  is  the  proper  way  of  dealing  with  will- 
ful defiance,  with  obstinate  carelessness,  or  with  a  really  perverted  will, 
.so  long  or  so  often  as  the  higher  perception  is  closed  against  appeal." 
Under  peculiarly  favorable  circumstances,  —  a  condition  of  things  which 
may  be  considered  ideal,  that  is,  where  the  home  training  of  the  pupils  of 
a  school  has  been  judicious  and  correct,  where  all  have  been  taught,  from 
their  earliest  years,  to  obey  their  elders  and  superiors;  and  this  not  by  vio- 
lence and  severity,  but  with  gentleness  and  firnmcss:  and  moreover,  Avhere 
the  teacher  or  teachers  of  the  school  are  gifted  witli  the  same  talents  for 
discipline,  —  under  such  circumstances,  most  educators  would  agree  that 
a  resort  to  corporal  punishment  would  scarcely  ever,  if  at  all,  be  necessary. 
But  such  are  not  the  circumstances  under  which  children  are  instructed  in 
school.     Bain,  in  Edncalion  as  a  Science  (1881)  says:     "Where  corporal 
punishment  is  kept  up,  it  should  be  at  the  far  end  of  tlie  list  of  penalties; 
its  slightest   application  should  be   accounted   the  worst  disgrace,  and 
should  b?  accompanied  with  stiguiatizing  forms.     It  should  be  regarded 
a.s  a  deep  injury  to  the  person  that  iutlicts  it,  and  to  those  that  luive  to 
witness  it.   as  the  height  of  shame  and  infamy.     It  ought  not  to  be  re- 
peated with  the  .same  pupil:  if  two  or  three  ajiplications  are  not  enough, 
removal  is  the  proper  course". 

As  to  tlie  olTenses  for  which  corporal  punishment  should  be  inflicted, 
and  the  proper  mode  of  inflicting  it,  the  following  suggestions  (of  a  practi- 
cal teacher)  would  probably  meet  with  universal  appruval  from  those  who 
claim  that  this  mode  of  discipline  is.  in  certain  cases,  indispensable:  (1)  It 
should  be  reserved  for  the  ba.scr  faults.  A  child  .should  never  be  struck 
for  inadvertencies,  for  faults  of  forgetfulncss,  for  irritability  and  careless- 
ness, or  for  petty  irregularities.  It  is  a  coarse  remedy,  and  should  be 
employed  upon  the  coarse  sins  of  our  animal  nature.  (2)  When  cmjjloyed 
at  all,  it  siiould  be  administered  in  strong  doses.  The  whole  system  of 
slaps,  pinches,  snappings,  and  irritating  blows  is  to  be  condemned.  These 
])etty  disciplines  tend  to  stir  up  anger,  and  rather  encourage  evil  in  the 
child  than  subdue  it.  (.S)  In  administering  physical  punishment  to  a  child, 
the  head  should  be  left  sacred  from  all  violence.  I'ulling  the  hair  or  the 
ears,  rapping  the  head  with  a  thimble  or  with  the  knuckles,  boxing  the 
ears,  .slapi)iMg  the  cheeks  or  the  mouth,  are  all  brutal  expedients.  These 
irritating  and  annoying  practices  are  far  more  likely  to  arouse  malignant 


F  L  i'JL-TE ACJLlEii  —  KK ADIJS  G  245 

passions,  than  to  alleviate  them.  (4)  The  temper  with  which  you  ad- 
minister punishment  will,  generally,  excite  in  the  child  a  corresponding 
feeling.  If  you  bring  anger,  anger  will  be  excited;  if  you  bring  affection 
and  sorrow,  you  will  find  the  child  responding  in  sorrowful  feelings;  if  you 
«)ring  moral  feelings,  the  child's  conscience  will  be  excited.  Anger  and 
severity  destroy  all  the  benefit  of  punishment:  love  and  firmness  will,  if 
anything  can.  work  penitence  and  a  change  of  conduct.  See  Ci/dojxsdia 
of  Education,  art.  Corporal  Punishment.  (See  also  Authority,  Disci- 
pline, and  Government.) 

PUPIL-TEACHER,  a  term  used,  chiefly  in  England,  to  designate  a 
boy  or  a  girl  employed  to  perform  certain  duties  connected  with  the  teach- 
ing and  management  of  a  school. 

aUADRIVIUM.     See  Arts. 

READING,  as  the  basis  and  instrument  of  all  literary  education,  is 
the  most  important  branch  of  school  instruction.  After  the  child  has 
learned  to  talk,  he  may  be  taught  to  understand,  and  to  give  vocal  ex- 
pression to,  such  written  language  as  is  adapted  to  his  degree  of  mental 

development.  To  do  this  involves  an  association,  in  the  mind, 
Iiocesses.  ^f  ^j^g  pointed  form  of  the  word  (1)  with  its  proper  sound,  or 
pronunciation,  and  (2)  with  the  idea  which  it  is  intended  to  express.  In 
teaching  children  to  read,  the  first  of  these  processes  requires  the  principal 
attention;  but,  as  progress  is  made,  the  second  constantly  increases  in  im- 
portance. The  word,  and  not  the  letters  composing  it,  is  the  true  element 
in  reading.  No  one  can  be  said  to  know  how  to  read  who  is  obliged  to 
stop  at  the  word,  and  study  its  composition,  before  he  can  pronomice  it. 
The  due  meaning  and  pronunciation  of  every  word  must  be  immediately 
recognized  by  the  mind,  without  pause  or  hesitation,  in  the  act  of  readiiio-. 
But  the  word  is  made  up  of  separate  characters,  representing  elementary 
sounds;  and  hence  arises  a  diversity  of  methods  in  teaching  children  to 

pronounce  words.    The  a/phctbei  method, or  A-B-Cmeihod{q.\.), 
"method    ^^'¥^^^^^  ^^^^■t  the  child  should  learn  the  names  of  all  the  letters 

of  the  alphabet,  and  then,  by  means  of  a  spelling  process,  learn 
the  proper  pronunciation  of  their  combinations.  This  process  is  condemned 
by  most  teachers  of  the  present  time,  as  long  and  tedious,  as  well  as  illogical; 
the  method  most  generally  preferred  being  that  denominated  the  u'ord 

method  (q.  v.),  by  which  the  child  learns  at  once  to  pronounce 
method     ^'^0^*  words,  and  is  taught  the  sounds  and  names  of  the  letters, 

by  an  analysis  of  them.     When  the  sounds  of  the  letters  are 

used  instead  of  the  names,  the  process  has  been  called  the  p7^o?a'c  ??ze/7^o(^ 

(q.  v.),  which, in  modern  didactics,  is  most  generally  approved.    Certainly, 

.      it  is  more  rational  to  expect  that  a  child  will  perceive  the  true 

melhod    Pronunciation  of  a  word  through  an  analysis  of  the  sounds  of 

the  letters,  than  by  using  their  names,  many  of  which  afford  no 
key  to  the  sound.  For  example,  iJf  the  word  be  cat,  the  child  reaches  the 
pronunciation  at  once  by  enumerating  the  sounds  Jc-h-l;  while  by  spelling, 
he  is  obliged  to  say  se-k-te,  introducing  sounds  entirely  foreign  to  the  word. 
In  the  one  case,  the  mental  association  required  is  simple  and  direct ;  in 
the  other,  it  is  complex  and  indirect.     It  is  true  that,  by  long  and  diligent 


240  RKADIXG 

rote-teaching,  children  learn  to  read  by  the  hitter  method;  but  the  question 
arises,  arc  they  not  to  a  certain  extent  unfitted  for  other  instruction  by  so 

illogical  a  process  ?  Auxiliary  to  tlio  jjhonic  method,  and,  indeed, 
"^r^d*^  dictated  by  its  needs,  is  the  phonetic  method,  in  which  the  absurd 

contradictions  of  the  alphabet  are  removed  by  using  the  letters 
slightly  modified,  so  as  to  have  a  character  for  each  separate  sound,  and 
each  sound  represented  by  one,  and  only  one,  character.  (See  Orthocraimiv, 
and  Fhonktics.)  These  various  methods  are  dictated  by  what  may  per- 
haps be  called  the  mechanics  of  reading;  but,  in  connection  with  that,  the 
teacher  nmst  always  bear  in  mind,  that  what  the  child  is  learning  to  pro- 
nounce is  a  symbol  of  thought;  and,  hence,  at  every  step,  the  pupil's  under- 
standing is  to  be  addressed.  ''Each  sentence  read",  says  Johox.vot  (in 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  N.  Y.,  1881),  "should  be  the  em- 
bodiment of  a  thought  which  the  pu])il  thoroughly  understands,  and  should 
be  delivered  precisely  as  it  should  be  spoken.  The  practice  of  allowing 
the  words,  of  a  reading-lesson  to  be  pronounced  .separately  should  never  be 
permitted".     Reading,  as  a  part  of  education,  has  a  twofold  object:  (1)  to 

understand  what  is  read;  and  (2)  to  give  proper  oral  expression 
Object.  ^Q  •(..  ^jjj^^  jg  ^Q  yjj^y^  reading  is  either  for  the  purpose  of  gaiiung 
information  for  one's  self,  or  for  imparting  information  to  others.  To  teach 
a  pujjil  to  read  properly  implies  far  more  than  correct  elocution.  It  implies 
the  development  of  that  judgment  and  spirit  which,  being  brought  to  the 
perusal  of  useful  books,  or  other  reading  matter,  will  enable  the  student  to 
gather  up  information,  and,  in  every  available  manner,  make  the  realm  of 
books  tributary  to  his  own  mental  wants,  llence,  as  auxiliary  to  reading, 
the  proper  meaning  of  words,  phrases,  and  idioms  nmst  be  taught;  and 
exercises  must  be  eniployed  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  to  what  extent 
the  pupil  has  received  correct  ideas  from  what  he  has  read.  AVhen  the 
object  is  to  teach  the  pupils  elocution,  the  exercises  should  be  specially 
adapted  to  that  end.  Thus,  the  pupil,  having  read  in  order  to  understand 
for  himself,  should  be  required  to  road  the  same  passage  for  the  information 
of  his  fellow  pupils.  For  this  purpose,  it  has  been  recommended,  in  class 
teaching,  to  permit  only  the  pupil  reading  to  use  the  book,  all  the  others 
being  required  to  listen;  because,  in  this  way,  the  pupils  will  be  on  the 
alert  to  hear  and  know  the  moaning  of  what  is  read,  and  will,  besides, 
better  appreciate  tlie  true  end  of  reading;  while,  on  the  other  liand,  the  one 
reading  will  endeavor  to  pronounce  correctly,  enunciate  distinctly,  and 

emphasize  naturally.  Reading-books  should  be  constructed  with 
Heading-  ^  special  reference  to  the  accomplishment  of  this  object;  and, 

hence,  the  lessons  should  be  adapted,  at  each  stage,  to  the  mental 
status  of  the  pu])ils.  ^Moreover,  the  material  should  not  consist  of  mere 
fragments,  without  any  logical  continuity;  but  should  be  of  such  a 
character  as  to  di-scipline  the  mind  in  connected  thinking  upon  suitable 
subjects,  and  to  awaken  an  interest  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Usually, 
this  essential  object  of  reading  in  .schools  is  defeated  by  the  use  of  extracts 
from  cs.says  on  difficult,  al)stract  subjects,  or  from  authors  whose  style  is 
too    complex,   and    whose    vocalndary    is    too   ponderous   for   children. 

Simultaneous  reading  is  commended  by  some  teachers  as  an 
'  "Hous'  elocutionary  drill,  as  being  useful  (1)  to  impart  habits  of  distinct- 
eiercise.    ness  of  enunciation,  (_)  to  remove  the  habit  of  too  i-apid  or  too 


RECESSES  —  RECITATION  247 

slow  a  style  of  reading,  (3)  as  means  of  voice  culture  for  elocution.  —  (See 
Elocution,  and  Voice.) 

RECESSES.     See  Hygiene,  School,  and  School  Management. 

RECITATION,  a  term  used  in  American  colleges  and  schools,  to 
denote  the  rehearsal  of  a  lesson  by  pupils  before  their  instructor,  or  the 
repetition  of  something  committed  to  memory.  The  manner  in 
How  to  -which  the  teacher  should  conduct  the  daily  recitations  of  his 
recitaiiotis  ^■'^^^  ^^  ^  matter  of  very  great  importance,  since  apparently 
'  perfect  recitations  may  be  gone  through  with  which  not  only 
have  little  educative  value,  but  may  even  be  productive  of  positive 
harm  to  the  mind  of  the  pupil.  The  surest  guide  in  this  respect,  is  that 
which  is  derived  from  a  consideration  of  the  essential  meaning  of  the  word 
education,  no  method  of  recitation  having  any  value  which  does  not  keep 
constantly  in  view  the  development  of  the  pupil's  mental  powers.  It 
should  always  be  remembered  by  the  teacher  that  the  supreme  object  of  the 
recitation  is  to  accustom  the  pupil,  by  daily  practice,  to  use  the  faculties 
of  which  he  is  possessed.  Many  a  so-called  recitation  results,  by  too  much 
explanation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  in  a  reversal  of  the  functions  of 
the  teacher  and  the  class  —  the  former  reciting  to  the  latter,  instead  of 
the  latter  to  the  former.  The  passive  attitude  of  mind  in  which  pupils 
listen  to  a  long  explanation  is  the  very  attitude  from  which  they  need  to  be 
roused.  There  are  two  stages  in  the  development  of  a  mental  power  as 
produced  •by  the  exercises  of  the  class  room:  (1)  the  knowing  what  to  say; 
and  (2)  the  saying  of  it.  The  first  stage  the  pupil  is  supposed 
dmelopment  ^°  have  reached  by  the  study  of  the  lesson;  the  second  and  most 
"  important  one,  is  not  passed  through  by  the  pupil  in  the  case 
above  supposed.  Of  far  greater  service  is  it,  therefore,  to  the  pupil,  to  be 
allowed  to  state  the  result  of  his  study  in  his  own  language,  halting  and 
imperfect  though  it  be,  than  to  compel  him  to  listen  to  an  exposition  by 
the  teacher.  Under  the  first  condition,  it  will  be  apparent,  at  every  step, 
whether  he  really  understands  his  lesson;  and,  if  he  does,  every  day  will 
add  to  the  copiousness  of  liis  vocabulary,  and  his  ease  of  mental  action, 
and  give  to  his  recitation  its  highest  educative  result;  while,  under  the 
second  —  the  condition  of  a  "passive  recipient",  —  there  will  always 
be  apparent  to  every  discerning  person,  an  inexact  apprehension  of  the 
thought  presented,  a  certain  degree  of  insincerity,  strengthened  into  & 
mental  habit  through  fear  of  ridicule,  and  mental  powers  "rusting  in 
disuse".  Even  apt  pupils,  under  such  conditions,  will  become,  at  best, 
theorists  or  dreamers  —  critics,  ready  to  pass  judgment  upon  others' 
performances,  but  powerless  to  act  for  themselves.  The  utmost  that  can 
be  claimed  for  this  method  is,  that  a  single  faculty,  that  of  mem- 
Memory.  ^^^^  ^^as,  been  cultivated;  while  this  cultivation  has  been  ac- 
complished not  only  by  the  neglect,  for  the  time  being,  of  the  other 
powers,  but  at  their  expense;  since  the  pupil  is  daily  becoming  confirmed 
in  the  idea  that  they  are  properly  exercised,  and,  by  pursuing  all  future 
studies  in  the  same  way,  acts  to  their  permanent  injury. 

It  is  not  intended  by  this  to  discountenance  the  explanation  of  those 

difficult  points,  which  will  always  occur,  sometimes  through  a  feebleness 

E^pla.     of  the  pupil's  understanding,  and  at  others  through  a  failure  of 

nations,    the  text-book  to  supply  a  link  necessary  to  the  continuity  of 


2i8  BECITATION 

thought.  Such  explanations  are  legitimate,  and  should  be  made  in 
language  suited  to  the  pupil's  comprehension;  the  most  thoughtful  edu- 
cators agreeing  in  this,  that  one  of  the  gravest  errors  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  is  an  explanation  in  terms  so  unfamiliar  as  to  be  unintelligible,  or 
so  as  to  leave  on  the  mind  of  the  pupil  only  a  vague  and  unsatisfactory 
impression.  One  of  the  most  conspicuous  merits  of  an  able  teacher  is  his 
ability  to  explain,  in  concise  and  simple  language,  tlie  dilliculties  which 
necessarily  beset  the  paths  of  his  pupils.  But  it  must  always  be  borne  in 
mind  that  one  of  the  greatest  merits  of  a  recitation  is  to  compel  the  pupil 
to  discover  and  present  for  himself  the  ditficulties  which  he  has  en- 
countered. 

The  method  of  simultaneous  recitation  is  open  to  the  objection  that 
by  it  the  errors  of  backward  pupils  —  and  those,  therefoi'c,  who  are  most 
in  need  of  instruction  —  are  concealed  under  the  readiness  of  the  more 

forward.  The  result  usually  anticipated  from  this  method, 
Simulta-  {^  g_^  ^  quickening  of  the  mental  powers  of  backward  pupils 
reciiation    "^^^^^^  the  spur  of  emulation,  does  not  appear  in  practice.    Says 

an  eminent  teacher,  "Simultaneous  recitation  may  sometimes 
be  useful.  A  few  questions  thus  answered  may  serve  to  give  animation  to 
a  class,  when  their  interest  begins  to  flag;  but  that  which  may  serve  as  a 
stimulant  must  not  be  relied  on  for  nutrition.  As  an  example  of  its  use- 
fulness, I  have  known  a  rapid  reader  tamed  into  due  moderation  by  being 
put  in  companionship  with  otliers  of  slower  speech,  just  as  we  tame  a 
friskful  colt  by  harnessmg  him  into  a  team  of  grave  old  horses.  But  aside 
from  such  definite  purpose,  I  have  seen  no  good  come  of  this  innovation". 
'J'hough  this  method  is  resorted  to  often  from  necessity  in  large  schools,  its 
operation  should  be  carefully  watched.  It  is  open,  also,  to  the  objections 
common  to  all  rote  teaching,  the  answer  committed  to  memory  from  the 
book  being  never  so  sure  an  indication  of  the  pupils  apprehension  of  the 
meaning,  as  his  answer,  before  the  class,  in  his  own  language.  This  latter 
furnishes  not  only  an  accurate  register  of  the  pu])irs  real  progress,  but  is 
a  mental  exercise  of  the  highest  value,  since  it  leads  to  accuracy  of  concep- 
tion and  expression,  and  increases  the  power  of  continuous  thinking.  (See 
Concert  Teaching.) 

The  first  requisite  for  skillfully  conducting  a  recitation  is  a  thorough 
preparation  by  the  teacher  for  the  particular  lesson  he  is  to  hear,  so  that 

he  may  be  able  to  follow  each  step  taken  by  the  pupil,  and  may 
I'repara-  stand  ready,  at  any  moment,  to  supply  the  needed  word  iu 
'teacher'^^  which  the  pupil  is  striving  to  embody  his  thought.    This  word, 

in  case  the  pupil's  conception  of  the  idea  is  correct,  but  its  ex- 
pression unfamiliar,  will  usually  be  some  simple  generic  one  for  which 
the  special  or  technical  word  may  properly  be  substituted  by  the  teacher. 
Another  point  to  be  remembered  is  the  order  in  iv/uch  the  different  p<trts 

of  a  sutijcct  are  presented.  Where  these  parts  depend  upon 
vresen-  ^^'^^^  other  by  a  natural  progression,  as  they  frequently  do,  a 
tation.     skillful  teacher  will  so  order  the  recitations  of  a  class  that  those 

parts  of  the  subject  which  are  the  natural  stepping-stones  to 
other  parts,  shall  be  presented  first,  such  an  arrangement  conducing 
])0werfully  to  a  correct  comprehension  of  the  subject  as  a  whole.  In  some 
studies  —  iu  the  natural  and  exact  sciences,  almost  always  —  this  method 


RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  219 

is  absolutely  necessary;  but,  while  in  other  branches  its  value  is  not  so  ap- 
parent, the  advantage  to  be  derived  from  its  adoption  is  generally  con- 
siderable. 

A  thorough  comprehension  by  the  pupils  of  the  subject  under  con- 
sideration will  insure  the  maintenance  of  three  other  conditions  necessary 
to  success  in  teaching,  and  usually  quite  strenuously  insisted  on 
Ccmipre-  jjy  -^yjiters  on  the  subject;  namely,  animation,  attention,  and  a 
the  subject.  '^Q'^"''^^  tone.  AVhen  pupils  understand  what  they  are  reciting, 
their  attention  and  animation  are,  by  that  fact,  made  certain; 
and  a  natural  tone  is  instinctively  adopted.  In  youth,  the  appetite  for 
new  truths  is  so  eager,  the  exultant  feeling  which  accompanies  the  con- 
quest of  difficulties  is  so  keen,  that  the  reflection  of  this  in  the  voice  and 
manner  of  the  pupil  is  a  matter  of  certainty.  Indeed,  their  opposites,  — 
inattention  and  want  of  animation,  are  generally  considered  by  educa- 
tional writers  as  an  indication  of  a  want  of  comprehension  - —  as  the  sure 
test  by  which  the  teacher  may,  at  any  moment,  judge  of  the  success  of  his 
.  instruction.  The  length  of  recitations  has  been  more  carefully 
recitations  considered  during  the  past  few  years  than  ever  before,  the 
'  weight  of  authority  having  constantly  inclined  to  a  diminution 
of  the  time  considered  proper  for  this  purpose  only  a  generation  ago. 
Currie,  for  example,  considers  that  fifteen  minutes  is  the  proper  medium 
for  classes  of  very  young  children,  twenty  being  the  maximum ;  while  half 
an  hour  is  the  average  for  classes  generally,  the  fixing  of  the  attention  for 
a  longer  period  not  being  attended  with  profit.  In  classes  of  older 
children,  and  in  advanced  instruction,  the  time  of  recitation  may,  of  course, 
be  considerably  prolonged  beyond  these  limits,  the  principle,  however, 
being  still  carefully  observed.  The  following  is  the  view  of  a  recent  writer: 
"The  best  results  are  secured  within  the  following  limits:  (1)  Primary 
school,  from  10  to  20  minutes;  (2)  Grammar  school,  from  20  to  30 
minutes;  (3)  High  school,  from  30  to  40  minutes;  (4)  College,  from  40  to 
60  minutes".  —  D.  P.  Page  says  on  this  subject:  "As  a  motive  for  every 
teacher  to  study  carefully  the  art  of  teaching  well  at  the  recitation,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  then  and  there  he  comes  before  his  pupils 
in  a  peculiar  and  prominent  manner;  it  is  there  his  mind  comes  specially 
in  contact  with  theirs,  and  there  that  he  lays  in  them,  for  good  or  for  evil, 
the  foundations  of  their  mental  habits.  It  is  at  the  recitation  in  a  pecul- 
iar manner  that  he  makes  Ids  marl:  upon  their  minds;  and  as  the  seal 
upon  the  was,  so  his  mental  character  upon  theirs  leaves  its  impress 
behind". 

RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  is  that  which  has  for  its  special  object 
the  cultivation  of  that  faculty  of  the  human  soul  by  means  of  which  it  is 
enabled  to  realize  the  existence  and  constant  presence  of  the 
Definition.  X)eity,  to  know  Him,  and  to  commune  with  Him  in  worship  and 
prayer.     Some  have  designated  this  the  relif/ious  sentiment;    but  strong 
exception  has  been  taken  to  that  term,  as  belittling  the  basis  of  religion  in 
the  human  soul.     An  experience  of  human  nature,  in  its  various  degrees 
of  culture,  shows  that  there  are  Avhat  may  be  called  religious 
e  tmient  i^^tuitions,  common  to  all  minds  of  whatever  grade  of  develop- 
ment; but  that  while  these  may  prompt  to  worship,  yet,  without 
religious  instruction,  they  can  lead  only  to  superstitious  and  debasing  prac- 


250  KKLKJIOUS  EDUllATIOX 

tices.  Tho  religious  or  spiritual  instinct  does  not  necessarily  involve  any 
act  of  the  intellect;  for  those  whose  intellectual  education  and  endowments 
are  quite  inferior,  often  show  a  surprising  degree  of  spiritual  insight 
and  religious  fervor.  This  fact,  however,  does  not  supersede  the  ne- 
cessity of  appealing  to  the  understanding  in  imparting  knowledge  of  those 
religious  truths  which  have  been  communicated  by  divine  revelation;  but. 

in  receiving  these  truths,  the  intellect  assumes  the  attitude  of 

faith  rather  than  of  inquiry;  that  is  to  say,  having  become 
satisfied  of  the  authenticity,  or  the  authority,  of  the  source  whence  these 
truths,  or  dogmatic  teachings  emanate,  it  does  not  exei'cise  its  powers  to 
establish  their  validity,  but  only  to  conceive  them  in  their  true  import  and 

relations.     Hence,  the  intellect  is  not  to  be  cultivated  by  means 

Office  of   of  religious  instruction;  although  its  exercise  cannot  wholly  be 

educaUou   dispensed  with.     The  specific   office  of  religious  education  is 

thus  twofold:  (1)  to  cultivate  the  religious  instincts;  and  (2) 
to  impart  religious  truth.  The  one  is  accomplished  by  means  of  devo- 
tional exercises;  the  other,  by  dogmatic  teachings.  In  the  first  stages  of 
religious  education,  appropriate  exercises  constitute  almost  the  only 
agency  needed,  nothing  but  the  simplest  religious  truths  being  requisite 
(such  as  are  usually  contained  in  the  catechism) ;  but,  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced period  of  culture,  the  importance  of  dogmatic  instruction  increases. 
Himple  prayers  and  hymns,  with  just  enough  teaching  to  enable  the  child 
to  realize  their  full  significance,  are  the  usual  and  the  most  effective  means 
of  exercising  the  religious  faculty.     It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind, 

that  the  mere  saying  of  a  prayer,  or  the  singing  of  a  hymn, 
I  layers.  ^yiH  not  necessarily  give  this  exercise,  any  more  than  merely 
committing  to  memory  a  definition  or  a  rule  will  exercise  the  intellect. 
The  mechanical  repetition  of  prayers,  in  religious  education,  is  just  as 
useless  as  rote-teaching  in  intellectual  education.  By  an  inattention  to 
this  principle  on  the  part  of  parents  and  religious  teachers,  no  doubt, 
many  children  become  disgusted  with  religious  devotion,  while  others 
imbibe  the  notion  that  religion  is  only  a  matter  of  forms  and  ceremo- 
nies, or  the  re[)cating  of  the  catechism.  In  either  case,  the  religious 
instinct  becomes  dormant  for  the  want  of  due  exercise. 

The  relation  of  moral  and  religious  education  should  be  carefully  studied. 
In  brief,  it  may  be  said  that  the  former  deals  with  the  relations  which  man- 

kind  sustain  to  each  other;  and  the  latter,  with  those  which  man 

relfainus    ^  ^  spiritual  being  sustains  to  the  Infinite  Spirit,  the  Creator 

education.  ^^^  Preserver  of  all  things.     In  the  one.  the  principle  addressed 

is  that  of  conscience  (q.  v.),  the  sense  of  right;  in  the  other,  it  is 
the  religious  principle,  the  spiritual  instinct,  by  which  man  is  brought  into 
communion  with  his  Afaker.  (See  Moral  ]"]duc.\tio.v.)  In  a  certain  sense, 
these  two  departments  of  education  are  independent,  for  conscience  oper- 
ates independently  of  religion;  but  a  religious  sanction  is  the  strongest 
foundation  for  moral  precepts.  For  this,  tiie  (,'liri.stian  revelation  affords 
the  fullest  authority,  the  "  first  and  great  commandment"  being  to  love 
God;  and  the  second,  "  to  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself".  l"he  several 
departments  of  education  are  not  to  be  divorced  from  one  another,  but  all 
arc  to  be  carried  on  together,  so  as  to  produce  a  harmonious  development 
of  character.      (See  IIak.mo.nv  oi'  develoi'.me.nt.) 


REWARDS  251 

In  imparting  religious  instruction,  the  same  principles  axe  to  be  applied 
as  in  intellectual  education,  as  far  as  language  is  the  vehicle  of  the 
instruction.  Very  much  of  the  religious  teaching  given  in  the 
&  methods.  Sunday-school  is  of  no  value,  because  of  the  neglect  to  observe 
'  these  principles.  Committing  to  memory  formulated  dogmas, 
verses  from  the  Bible,  doctrinal  lessons,  etc.,  without  any  proper  apprecia- 
tion of  their  significance,  can  be  of  little  service;  and  in  some  cases  may  do 
positive  harm.  Oral  instruction  plays  a  most  important  part  in  this  kind 
of  teaching;  and  Bible  expositions,  when  clear,  definite,  and  illustrative, 
always  prove  the  most  effective  as  well  as  the  most  attractive  means  of 
instruction.  In  the  effort  to  avoid  sectarianism,  the  secularization  of  the 
common  schools  in  the  United  States  has  been  carried  to  the  extreme,  and 
religious  education  has  been  too  much  neglected.  It  is  well  said  by  Bald- 
win, in  The  Art  of  Scliool  Management  (N.  T.,  1881),  that  "  society  in 
its  protest  against  bigoted  ecclesiasticism  and  clerical  control  in  education, 
rushes  to  the  other  extreme  —  non-religion.  AU  agree  that  sound  morality 
must  be  made  the  very  sub-basis  of  an  educational  system.  But  how 
shall  we  build  up  moral  character,  if  we  exclude  from  our  schools  God,  the 
Bible,  responsibility,  future  Ufe  ?" 

REWARDS,  as  an  instrument  of  family  or  school  discipline,  are 
benefits  or  privileges  conferred  to  incite  children  to  well-doing.  Primarily, 
the  offer  of  a  reward,  as  an  incitement  to  effort  on  the  part  of 
they  appeal.  ^^^^  P^i^'  appeals  to  hope,  as  punishment  does  to  fear;  but 
'  there  are  other  elements  of  individual  character  also  addressed, 
depending  on  (1)  the  nature  of  the  reward  offered,  and  (2)  the  individuality 
of  the  pupil.  I'hus,  the  pupil  who  is  particularly  fond  of  praise,  if  offered 
a  valuable  gift  as  an  inducement  to  do  right,  would  strive  to  obtain  it  as  a 
striking  token  of  his  teacher's  approval;  while  one  who  was  naturally  ac- 
quisitive, or  eager  for  gain,  would  regard  only  the  intrinsic  value  of  the 
reward.  Hence,  in  one  case,  the  pupil's  approbativeness  would  be  stimu- 
lated; and,  in  the  other,  his  acquisitiveness;  but  in  neither  would  the  sense 
of  duty  be  cultivated.  The  necessity  of  exercising  great  care  in 
mi  ion.  o|jgj,JQg  reAvards  wiU,  therefore,  be  obvious.  While  an  appeal  to 
hope  as  an  incentive  to  do  right,  is  in  most  cases,  if  not  always,  preferable 
to  an  appeal  to  fear;  yet,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  rewards  as  well  as 
punishments  constitute  only  a  temporary  expedient  in  the  discipline  of 
children,  and  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  give  place  to  a  direct  appeal  to 
conscience,  or  the  sense  of  right.  (See  Co^•scIE^•cE.)  When  rewards  are 
offered  to  a  number  of  pupils,  to  be  conferred  upon  those  who  excel  aU 
the  others,  they  become  prizes,  and  are  liable  to  all  the  objections 
2^-emhmis'.^^^^^  tave  been  ui'ged  against  the  prize  system;  but  when 
■  rewards  (premiums),  whether  gifts  of  money,  books,  pictures, 
or  other  articles  of  value,  or  merely  tickets  or  certificates  of  merit,  are 
offered  to  all  who  reach  a  certain  specified  standard  of  merit,  either  in 
study  or  behavior,  these  objections  are  obviated;  as,  although  the  mercenary 
spirit  may  still  be  addressed,  there  is  not  the  same  liability  to  injustice,  or 
the  same  cause  of  envy  and  jealousy.     Rewards  may,  however,  consist 

.,  merely  of  .special  privileges  conferred  upon  meritorious  pupils; 

nvieges.  ^^^^   ^^    dismissal   before   the    usual   time  for  closing  school, 

permission  to  occupy  some  post  of  honor  or  authority  in  connection  with 


252  RHETOKIC 

the  management  of  the  school  or  class,  or  to  engage  in  some  special  sport 
or  recreation  planned  by  the  teacher,  as  a  means  of  encouraging  well-doing, 
^yi  these,  doubtless,  have  their  place  in  a  proper  scheme  of  school  discipline; 
and,  when  used  with  discrimination,  are  beneficial. 

A  system  of  rewards  has  been  objected  to  as  appealing  to  the  lower, 
rather  than  to  the  higher,  motives;  but  an  educator  must  not  be  led  astray 

by  any  transcendental  view  of  human  nature.  He  must  rec- 
Ohjections.  q„i^\^q  iy^q  moral  imperfections  of  his  pupil,  and  strive  to  lift  him 
gradually  to  a  higher  plane  of  thought  and  action.  In  this  connection,  it 
has  been  properly  remarked,  "  whatever  may  be  possible  in  the  mature 
man,  in  the  line  of  that  sublime  abstraction,  virtue  is  its  own  reward,  the 
child  is  neither  equal  to  such  abstractions,  nor  are  they  demanded  of  him. 
They  may,  it  is  true,  be  gradually  wrought  by  instruction  into  the  body  of 
his  thought,  for  the  sake  of  their  ultimate  effect  on  his  principles  as  a 
man;  but,  embraced,  as  he  is,  in  a  world  of  perceived  realities, and  only 
capable  of  attaining  the  subtler  ideals  by  passing  to  them  through  the  fine 
gradations  of  a  progressively  reduced  and  sublimated  reality,  it  is  absurd 
and  tyrannous  to  rob  him  of  the  stimulus,  guidance,  and  aid  of  proper 
rewards  as  outward  realities  foreshadowing  the  ideal  of  absolute  virtue, 
and  rendering  possible  both  its  conception  and  attainment". 

RHETORIC  (Gr.  p;/^op^^i7,  art  of  oratory)  was  originally  applied  to 
that  branch  of  study  in  which  students  were  trained  for  public  speaking. 

In  Greece  and  Rome,  the  orator  was  directly  the  most  powerful 
f'l'^f^^'^  exponent  of  truth  and  opinion.  As  a  teacher,  as  m'oU  as  a 
'  "  persuader,  his  influence  was,  to  a  great  extent,  confined  to  his 
hearers;  and  eloquence  was,  therefore,  in  the  greatest  request.  But,  even 
in  the  writings  of  the  three  greatest  of  the  ancient  rhetoricians,  —  Aris- 
totle, Cicero,  Quintilian,  there  is  evidence  that  rhetoric  embraced  com- 
positions not  intended  for  delivery  in  public.  In  modern  times,  rhetoric 
as  an  art  treats  of  all  composition,  whether  spoken  or  written.  It  has 
been  well  defined  as  the  art  of  discourse,  and  discourse  itself  as  "the 
capacity  in  man  of  communicating  his  mental  states  to  other  minds  by 
means  of  language".  It  embraces  poetry  as  well  as  prose  "because",  as 
Campbell  says,  "the  same  medium,  language,  is  made  use  of;  the  same 
general  rules  of  composition,  in  narration,  description,  and  argumentation, 
are  observed;  and  the  same  tropes  and  figures,  either  for  beautifying  or 
invigorating  the  diction,  are  employed  by  both.  The  versification  is  to 
be  considered  as  an  appendage  rather  than  a  constituent  of  poetry".  In  the 
most  recent  treatises  on  rhetoric,  elocution,  or  the  art  of  delivery,  has  been 
omitted.  Day  very  justly  says,  "that  this  mode  of  communication  is  not 
essential.  The  thought  may  be  conveyed  by  the  pen  or  by  the  voice. 
Elocution,  or  the  vocal  expression  of  thought,  is  not.  accordingly,  a  neces- 
sary part  of  rhetoric".  In  Whately's  treatise  [Elements  of  Rhetoric), 
however,  a  work  considerably  used  by  students,  a  large  part  is  devoted  to 
elocution. 

It  has  often  been  observed  that  there  must  have  been  orators  before 
there  were  rules  in  oratory;  and  this  is  often  used  as  an  argument  for 

undervaluing  the  study  of  rhetoric,  just  as  kindred  arguments 
us^udT  ^^^  advanced  against  the  study  of  logic  and  grammar.     But 

there  can  be  no  question  that  immense  progress  has  been  made 


EHETOEIC  253 

through  the  critical  study  of  writers  of  standard  reputation  by  comparing, 
discriminating,  and  deciding  on,  their  faults  and  graces,  thus  teaching  us 
what  to  avoid,  and  what  to  emulate.  In  its  best  sense,  rhetoric  presup- 
poses an  acquaintance  with  logic  —  the  science  and  art  of  reasoning; 
because  conviction  and  persuasion  are  two  of  the  great  objects  present  in 
the  minds  of  speakers  and  writers.  It  also  requires  an  acquaintance  with 
grammar,  as  teaching  the  proper  arrangement  of  words  and  sentences. 
Rhetoric  may  be  regarded  from  two  points  of  view:  (1)  as  a  purely  critical 
study;  and  (2)  as  the  constant  practice  of  an  art.    To  the  extent  that  either 

of  these  views  becomes  more  prominent  in  the  teacher's  mind, 

he^re°     ^^^^  *^^®  character  of  his  instruction  be  affected.     It  is  quite 

garded.     possible  to  prepare  students  to  recite  well  in  the  statement  of 

principles  and  definitions;  and  yet  the  same  students  may  be 
very  deficient  in  the  development  or  expression  of  spoken  or  written 
thought.  In  the  celebrated  treatise  of  Blair,  Lectures  on  Elieioric  and 
Belles-Letires,  taste  and  style  are  so  treated  as  to  occupy  a  very  large  part 
of  the  subject.  It  is  largely  so  with  Campbell's  Philosoplnj  of  Rhetoric. 
.  Whately  drew  particular  attention  to  the  subject  of  invention; 
elocution  '  ^^*  ^^^  follows  style  with  a  chapter  on  elocution.     The  practice, 

at  present,  which  seems  to  be  increasing  in  favor  with  teach- 
ers, is  to  omit  elocution,  or  the  training  in  mere  delivery,  and  to  ex- 
tend the  importance  of  invention  even  beyond  that  assigned  to  it  by 
'VN  hately.  The  two  great  divisions  of  rhetoric  are  thus  invention  and 
style.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  importance  of  invention  in 
rhetoric.  The  arrangement  of  the  thoughts  according  to  their  logical 
dependence  must  be  the  foundation  of  the  art  of  discourse.  Good  thinking 
must  always  precede  good  writing.  The  ofiice  of  invention  is  to  train  the 
pupil  to  habits  of  correct  thinking.  It  does  more  than  this;  it  seeks  to  sup- 
ply the  thought.  Thus,  invention  is  naturally  divided  into  two  parts,  — 
the  supplying  of  the  thought,  and  its  proper  arrangement;  and  of  these 
two  divisions,  the  second  is  dependent  on  the  first.  It  may,  however,  be 
doubted,  whether  invention  can  be  properly  studied  at  the  early  age  when 
pupils  are  usually  required  to  study  rhetoric.  In  many  of  its  steps,  it  is 
essentially  logical,  and  presupposes  an  acquaintance  with  that  subject,  — 
and  this  again  demands  some  considerable  maturity  of  mind.  The  prepara- 
tion of  arguments,  or  the  art  of  influencing  the  will  by  discourse,  is  a  power 
the  development  of  which  goes  on  past  middle  age;  but  it  is  a  power  that 
cannot  be  successfully  trained  in  very  early  years.  The  chief  danger  in 
teaching  this  particular  division  of  rethoric,  is  that  it  may  be  made  too 
scientific.  There  are  few  young  minds  so  trained,  or  of  such  native  vigor, 
as  to  be  capable  of  dwelling  long,  and  with  benefit  upon  even  well  enunci- 
ated truths  and  definitions;  but.  even  where  it  is  insisted  on  and  continued, 
the  results  are  not  always  beneficial. 

The  second  grand  division  of  rhetoric,  style,  deals  more  particularly  with 
the  form  of  the  thought.      Perhaps  no  word  has  given  more  difficulty  to 
.  define.      Without  speech,  "thought  is  not  possible  in  reality'', 

'-ye.  Though  so  endlessly  variable  in  its  form,  so  subtle  as  almost  to 
defy  minute  analysis,  so  subject  to  the  moods  of  thought,  and  yet  so  plastic 
as  to  conform  to  its  most  sinuous  and  involved  movements,  we  soon  realize 
by  a  little  study,  how  completely  it  is  a  part  of  the  thinking.   The  thought 


254  ROTE -TEACHING 

aud  the  style  are  thus  seen  to  be  one  living  body.  As  a  subject  of  study, 
it  is  that  part  of  rhetoric  which  has  always  created  and  maintained  the 
greatest  interest  in  the  minds  of  young  students.  Treating  of  the  form  of 
the  sentence,  and  also  of  its  component  words,  it  depends,  to  some  extent, 
on  grammar,  and  may  be  said  to  follow  it,  in  a  natural  order  of  study.  It 
is,  therefore,  to  young  minds  more  suitable  than  the  other  division  — 
invention.  The  practice  which  it  requires  in  the  substitution  of  words,  the 
inversion  of  sentences  from  grammatical  to  rhetorical  forms,  the  use  of 
rhetorical  figures,  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  language,  furnishes  a 
constant  stimulus  to  mental  exertion.  Such  exercises  in  style  show  the 
student  how  powerfully  the  thought  is  influenced  by  the  vehicle  of 
thought,  how  it  may  be  modified  by  the  substitution  of  a  clearer  word, 
or  remarkably  affected  by  a  different  position  of  the  same  words. 

The  advantage  of  senieniial  anah/sis  in  the  careful  study  of  style  can 
scarcely  be  overrated.     The  arrangement  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses, 

peculiar  to  the  great  EngHsh  writers,  affect  most  powei'fully  the 
Sentential  ^^j,^  q£  ^^^  thought,  and  are  open  to  investigation  through  this 

analysis.  The  kind  of  sentences  they  use,  and  the  variety  in 
which  they  indulge,  give  that  harmony  of  movement  so  indescribably 
pleasing.  We,  thus,  see  from  what  arise  the  clearness  and  greatuess  of 
llume,  the  energy  and  brilliancy  of  ]\Iacaulay,  the  grace  of  Irving,  the 
manly  vigor  of  Sydney  Smith,  the  philosophic  calmness  of  Helps,  the  in- 
comparable plasticity  and  fire  of  Byron's  prose.  Perhaps  no  part  of  rhet- 
oric offers  a  finer  field  for  both  teacher  and  student  than  the  application 
of  sentential  analysis  to  an  investigation  of  the  striking  peculiarities  in  the 
style  of  great  writers. 

In  no  branch  of  study,  is  there  greater  necessity  for  abundance  of 
practice  on  the  part  of  the  student.  In  none  is  there  greater  necessity 
that  the  student,  and  not  the  teacher,  should  do  the  chief  part  of  the  work. 

The  value  of  rliutoric,  as  a  branch  of  study,  is  to  be  tested  by  its 
m^actice     W^^'^^'^^^  titility,  by  what  it    contributes  towards   developing 

clearness,  force,  and  beauty  of  expression  in  language.  Any 
thing  else,  however  scientific,  in  this  branch  must  prove  to  the  young  stu- 
dent a  comparatively  barren  and  irksome  task.  In  this  light,  the  constant 
application  of  a  few  simple  principles  to  the  criticism  of  great  writei-s  is  an 
admirable  part  of  the  training.  In  lilair's  Lectures  on  Rlieloric,  there  is 
a  series  of  papers  from  Addison  illustrating  this  view;  and  it  is  to  be 
doubted  whether  modern  treatises  on  rhetoric,  aiming  at  a  more  philo- 
sophic treatment  of  the  subject,  wliile  they  have  gained  in  scientific 
arrangement,  may  not  have  lost  some  of  this  critical  training.  Accuracy, 
as  well  as  force  of  expression,  purity,  propriety,  grace,  are,  to  most  stu- 
dents, the  result  of  constant,  careful  practice,  combined  with  criticisms  on 
distingiiisliod  writers. 

ROTE-TEACHING,  or  Teaching-  by  Rote  (Fr.  route,  road, 
whence  ?-OM/uie),  a  method  of  giving  instruction  by  means  of  constant  repe- 
tition, particularly  of  certain  forms  of  speech,  with  little  or  no  attention  to 
their  meaning.  Hence,  such  teaching  is  often  described  as  mevhanical,  that 
is,  impressing  the  memory  through  the  ear  and  the  eye,  but  not  exercising 
the  understanding.  Rote-teaching  may  be  regarded  as  an  abuse  of  the 
principle  of  repetition.    (See  Associatio.v,  and  Concert  Teaching.) 


SCHOOL  -  SCHOOL  FURNITURE  255 

SCHOOL  (Lat.  schola,  from  Gr.  axo^-ii,  leisure,  especially  for  literary- 
studies,  and  hence  applied  to  the  place  where  such  studies  were  pursued, — ■ 
a  school),  a  term  now  applied  to  an  educational  establishment,  particu- 
larly of  the  primary  or  secondary  grade;  as  a  primary  school,  a  grammar 
school,  a  high  school,  a  classical  school,  etc.  Schools  of  the  secondary 
grade  are,  however,  often  designated  academies,  seminaries,  etc.  The 
term  school  is  not  applied  to  an  institution  of  learning  of  the  superior 
grade,  but  institutions  for  scientific  or  professional  instruction  are  usually 
called  schools;  as  theological  schools,  medical  schools,  law  schools,  polytech- 
nic schools,  art  schools,  etc. 

SCHOOL  ECONOMY,  a  general  term  applied  to  the  collective  body 
of  principles  and  rules  by  which  the  keeping  of  schools  is  regulated.  In  its 
widest  sense,  it  embraces  all  that  pertains  to  the  construction  and  furnish- 
ing of  the  school-house,  the  proper  apparatus  to  be  employed  in  carrying 
on  the  processes  of  instruction,  the  various  modes  of  school  organization 
and  administration,  including  a  consideration  of  the  length  and  arrange- 
ment of  school  sessions  and  terms,  the  proper  records  to  be  kept,  the  course 
of  study,  programme  of  daily  exercises,  and  the  modes  of  discipline,  man- 
agement, and  instruction. 

SCHOOL  FURNITURE.  Under  this  head  will  be  considered 
(1)  desks  and  seats;  (2j  platform;  (3)  blackboard;  and  (4)  miscellaneous 
furniture  and  apparatus. 

In  the  matter  of  health,  desks  and  seats  are,  perhaps,  the  articles  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  the  school  room.  Notwithstanding  their  im- 
portance, however,  as  deciding  the  pupil's  position  for  several 
sea^  hours  of  the  day,  and  thus  determining,  in  a  great  measure,  his 
future  health  and  bearing,  school  authorities  are  not  yet 
entirely  agreed  as  to  their  style,  dimensions,  or  arrangement;  each  civilized 
country  using  its  own,  on  account  of  some  peculiar  advantage,  the  relative 
value  of  which  is  determined  by  observation  from  its  own  stand-point. 
The  first  consideration,  in  the  construction  or  arrangement  of  desks  and 
seats,  should  have  regard  to  their  influence  upon  the  health  of  the  pupils; 
the  second,  to  the  convenience  of  the  teacher  and  pupils,  in  the  adjusta- 
bility of  the  desk  and  seat  for  different  exercises,  or  for  purposes  of  school 
government,  which  last  would  be  determined  principally  by  the  arrange- 
ment, and  the  means  afforded  for  facilitating  the  entrance  or  exit  of  the 
pupils.  Of  the  comparative  advantages  of  different  styles  of  desks  or 
seats,  it  is  not  necessary  here  to  speak,  the  subject  being  treated  exhaust- 
ively in  the  works  referred  to  at  the  end  of  this  article.  The  books  that 
have  been  written  on  this  subject  in  different  countries  form  almost  a 
library  of  themselves.  Perhaps  the  best  form  yet  devised  is  that  described 
in  the  report  of  M.  Buisson,  French  commissioner  to  the  Exposition  at 
Vienna  in  1873,  which  was  selected  for  special  commendation,  after  an 
examination  of  all  the  styles  there  presented.  It  is  known  as  the  Bapte- 
rosses  desk  and  seat,  from  the  name  of  the  inventor,  who  designed  it  for 
use  in  his  factory  at  Briare.  It  has  recently  been  introduced  into  the 
normal  school  at  Auteuil.  The  chair  is  single,  the  seat  being  of  wood, 
round  or  square  in  shape,  and  supported  by  an  iron  leg  which  slides  up  or 
down  in  a  sheath,  or  hollow  cylinder,  the  base  of  which  is  firmly  screwed 
to  the  floor.     The  leg  and  sheath  together  form  the  support  of  the  seat^ 


256  SCHOOL  FURXITURE 

•which  is  checked  at  any  height,  ia  its  upward  or  downward  motion,  by  a 
thumbscrew.  The  back  of  the  chair  is  of  the  ordinary  pattern,  and  Ls 
shghtly  inchned.  The  desk  is  stationary,  and  is  supported  by  a  cast-iron 
upright.  Its  upper  surface  is  divided  into  two  parts  in  the  usual  manner 
—  a  narrow  horizontal  part  at  the,  back,  and  a  sloping  part,  much 
larger,  and  nearer  the  pupil.  It  is  provided  cither  with  a  lid  which 
converts  the  desk  into  an  ordinary  bo.x:,  or,  if  the  top  is  not  movable, 
with  compartments  which  open  laterally.  A  small  leaden  pipe,  extending 
the  whole  length  of  the  desk,  under  the  horizontal  part  of  the  upper  sur- 
face, serves  as  an  inkstand.  It  is  provided  with  a  vent  at  each  end, 
secured  by  a  copper  cap,  and,  opposite  the  pupil,  is  pierced  to  receive  a 
small  copper  funnel  of  sufficient  size  to  allow  only  the  point  of  the 
pen  to  enter.  By  this  arrangement,  the  pupil  can  neither  dip  his  pen  too 
deeply,  so  as  to  get  too  much  ink,  nor  upset  his  inkstand.  Near  the 
foot  of  the  leg  of  the  desk  is  a  foot-rest,  which  may  be  raised  or  lowered 
by  the  same  device  of  slide  and  thumbscrew  that  is  used  for  the  seat. 
The  thumb-screws  used  on  the  chair  and  desk  are.  so  arranged  that  they 
cannot  be  turned  except  by  a  key,  which  is  kept  by  the  teacher.  The 
principal  advantage  of  this  desk  is,  that  it  can  be  adapted  to  pupils  of 
different  heights;  its  other  recommendations  are  obvious.  An  improve- 
ment, perhaps,  might  be  made  by  providing  the  desks  with  two  sui)ports 
instead  of  one,  thus  securing  a  firmness  which  desks  supported  by  one 
central  pillar  do  not  usually  have.  The  single  desk  should  be  2  feet  long, 
from  2')  in.  to  29  in.  high,  and  18  in.  wide;  the  double  desk  should  be  4 
feet  long,  the  other  dimensions  being  the  same  as  those  of  the  single  desk. 
The  seats  should  be  from  12  in.  to  16.  in  high.  Recitation  seats  as  well 
as  desk  seats  should  be  provided  with  backs.  It  should  not  be  forgotten, 
however,  that  no  arrangement  of  desk  or  seat,  however  ingeniously 
adapted  to  the  pupil's  comfort,  can  take  the  place  of  that  frequent  change 
of  position  which  is  a  necessity  of  his  being.  Of  the  dimensions  of  desks 
and  seats,  Robson  says,  after  a  careful  comparison  of  the  works  of  Zwey, 
Falk,  Frey,  Cohn,  Kleiber,  and  N'irchow,  "  The  weight  of  opinion  is  to  the 
effect  that  the  height  of  the  seat  should  correspond  to  the  length  of  the 
scholai-'s  leg,  from  the  knee  to  the  sole  of  the  foot.  There  must  be  no 
stretching  of  muscles;  therefore,  the  sole  of  the  foot  must  rest  on  the  floor 
or  upon  some  flat  surface.  If  the  seat  be  too  high,  the  swinging  of  the 
foot  in  the  air  causes  a  compression  of  the  blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the 
hinder  part  of  the  leg  and  knee ;  if  it  be  too  low,  the  thighs  of  the  scholar 
are  pressed  against  his  stomacli  to  the  disadvantage  of  "health.  *  *  *  In 
order  to  prevent  the  scholar's  slipping  forward,  the  seat  should  be  slightly 
declined  backward.  The  height  of  the  desks  .should  be  so  arranged,  that 
the  under  part  of  the  arm  may  rest  comfortably  on  the  desk-top,  and  that 
the  powers  of  vision  may  not  be  strained,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
normal  distance  of  vision  may  be  preserved.  Desks  which  are  too  low  cause, 
by  the  l)ending  of  the  scholar,  a  pressing  on  the  chest  and  lower  part  of  the 
body;  while  those  which  are  too  high  cause  the  right  .shoulder  to  be  so 
lifted,  as  to  remove  the  upper  ])art  of  the  arm  so.  far  from  the  body,  that 
the  lower  arm  cannot  be  laid  flat  on  the  table,  thereby  causing  the  arm 
to  be  unsteady  and  easily  tired".  Much  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  iu 
devising  seats  capable  of  transformation  into  a  -i'aricty  of  forms.    The 


SCHOOL  FUEXITUEE  257 

tendency  in  this  respect  is  frequently  towards  a  mechanism  so  compUcated 
that  it  defeats  its  own  object  by  becoming  easily  disarranged;  and,  even 
if  this  were  not  the  case,  many  of  the  transformations  will  usually  be 
found  to  be  useless.  The  really  desirable  changes  of  form  are  very  few. 
Says  an  eminent  educator:  "  If  seats  could  be  so  contrived  as  to  remain 
firm  when  placed  horizontally,  to  allow  the  pupil  to  lean  forward  easily  to 
write  upon  his  desk,  and  then  could  be  made  to  have  an  inclination  back- 
ward when  the  pupil  desires  to  read  or  study,  it  would  add  much  to  his 
comfort  in  sitting,  and  something,  perhaps,  to  the  comeliness  of  his 
figure".  Concerning  the  distance  of  the  seat  from  the  desk,  a  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  exists,  some  teachers  considering  only  one  inch  neces- 
sary, others  as  much  as  three.  On  this  point  Dr.  Wiese  says:  "  It  is, 
therefore,  desirable,  that  the  inner  edge  of  the  desk  should  be  distant  from 
the  front  of  the  seat  only  about  one  inch".  Eobson  says:  "  The  scholar 
who  sits  too  far  from  the  desk,  either  bends  too  much,  and  thereby  hurts 
his  chest  and  eyes,  or  he  glides  too  far  forward  on  his  seat,  and  so  gets  an 
unsteady  position.  *  *  *  It  is  recommended  that  the  vertical  distance 
from  the  desk  to  the  seat-top  should  be  the  length  of  the  fore-arm,  or 
one-sixth  the  size  [height]  of  the  body  of  the  scholar.  Too  great  a  distance 
encourages  crooked  growth;  for  the  scholar,  while  w^riting,  has  his  body 
weighing  on  one  arm,  instead  of  having  the  arm  naturally  resting  on  his 
body.  If  the  difference  in  height  between  the  desk  and  the  seat  be  too  slight, 
then  the  chest  sinks,  and  the  back  is  bent  out  so  as  to  encourage  stoop- 
ing". Of  the  arrangement  of  desks,  many  methods  have  been  advocated, 
and  different  ones  prevail  in  different  countries ;  but  the  weight  of  author- 
ity seems  to  be  in  favor  of  seating  the  pupils  in  pairs,  this  method  being 
economical  as  to  space,  and  more  advantageous  for  both  teacher  and  pupil 
in  the  efficient  carrying  out  of  the  daily  exercises.  Its  superiority,  also, 
in  the  matter  of  ingress  and  egress  of  the  pupils  is  manifest.  The  arrange- 
ment of  desks  in  regard  to  space  and  light  has  been  considered  in  the 
article  Hygiexe,  School.  Many  other  considerations  present  themselves 
in  this  connection,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  following:  the  form  and 
height  of  the  back  of  the  seat;  its  attachment  to,  or  independence  of,  the 
desk  immediately  behind  it;  the  variation  in  the  height  of  seats  and  desks 
as  arranged  on  the  same  level  for  pupils  of  different  sizes;  the  slope  of  the 
floor,  or  its  construction  in  steps,  for  the  same  purpose;  the  movable  desk 
or  seat  as  compared  with  the  stationary;  the  mountings  of  desks  and  seats 
on  casters;  the  varying  slope  of  the  desk-top  for  different  purposes;  the 
space  between  the  desks ;  the  breadth  of  aisles,  etc.  These  are  all  consid- 
ered, however,  in  works  specially  written  for  the  purpose;  and  the  merits 
of  each  for  different  purposes  are  fully  set  forth. 

The  platform  is  now  considered  highly  desirable,  if  not  indispensable, 

in  the  school  room.     On  all  pubHc  occasions,  whether  of  examination  or 

exhibition,  it  is  indispensable;  while  there  are  many  occasions  in 

ajoim.  ^j^g  usual  routine  of  the  school,  when  it  is  exceedingly  useful. 
It  should  be  not  less  than  6  feet  wide,  and  15  inches  high,  and  should  be 
divided  into  two  levels  or  risers.  In  schools  in  which  all  the  exercises  are 
conducted  in  one  room,  closets  for  the  storing  of  school  apparatus  are  often 
placed  at  each  end  of  the  platform.  Eecitation  rooms  are  usually  fitted  up 
without  platforms,  the  teacher's  desk  standing  on  the  floor. 


258  SCHOOL-HOUSE 

At  the  Isack  of  the  platform,  against  the  wall,  and  facing  the  school  or 
class,  is  placed  the  blackboard.  It  should  extend  the  entire  length  of  the 
platform,  should  be  at  least  4  feet  wide,  and  extend  to  within 
Blackboard.  ^^^.^^  j.-^.^^  ^f  ^^le  floor.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  frame  all 
around,  and  a  trough  at  the  lower  edge  for  the  chalk,  and  to  catch  dust, 
and  should  have  hooks,  on  which  pointers  may  be  hung.  The  material  of 
blackboards  is  of  three  kinds:  wood,  slate,  and  a  kind  of  slate-surface 
made  to  lay  directly  on  the  wall.  The  last,  by  combining  in  a  medium  the 
best  qualities  of  the  two  others,  is  the  most  desirable.  (See  Blackboard.  ) 
The  principal  consideration  under  the  head  of  furniture  and  apparatus 
is  not  so  much  the  comparative  values  of  different  articles,  but  what  articles 
are  indispensable  or,  at  least,  highly  necessary.  Among  these, 
Furniture  may  be  mentioned  a  clock,  a  small  bell  for  the  calling  and  dis- 
"■^^f .  missing  of  classes,  chairs  for  visitors,  closets  or  wardrobes, 
apparatus.  pj.Q^j, j^j  ^^^^^^  wrought-iron  hooks  and  pegs,  a  thermometer,  sets 
of  maps  and  charts,  a  terrestrial  globe,  an  abacus,  or  numeral  frame,  and 
a  collection  of  miscellaneous  articles  to  be  used  in  giving  object  lessons. 
The  extent  to  which  the  articles  desirable  for  the  school  room  have  been 
added  to,  and  perfected,  both  in  the  United  States  and  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  is  remarkable;  the  list  given  above,  however,  furnishes  a  tolerably 
complete  outfit  for  a  primary  school.  One  consideration  remains  to  be 
insisted  on;  namely,  the  exercise  of  good  taste  in  the  selection  of  furniture 
and  articles  intended  to  be  in  constant  sight  of  the  pupils.  On  this  subject, 
the  architect  of  the  London  School  Board  remarks:  "  The  furniture  of  the 
school  room  should  be  graceful  in  form,  and  good  in  quality  and  finish. 
Children  arc  particularly  susceptible  of  surrounding  influences,  and  their 
daily  familiarization  with  beauty  of  form  or  color,  in  the  simplest  and  most 
ordinary  objects,  cannot  fail  to  assist  in  fostering  the  seeds  of  taste,  just  as 
daily  discipline  tends  to  promote  habits  of  order.  Furniture  finished  like 
good  cabinet  work  is  more  likely  to  be  respected,  even  by  the  mischievous 
school  boy,  than  that  of  an  unsightly  or  rough  character". — For  further 
information  on  tliis  subject  .see  Ci/dopcedia  of  Education. 

SCHOOL-HOUSE.  —  Of  the  first  importance  in  any  system  of  public 
instruction,  is  school  arcliiteclure,  including  every  thing  that  relates  to  the 
building  in  which  the  instruction  is  to  be  imparted.  All  matters  that 
concern" the  health  of  the  school;  namely,  the  situation  of  the  school-house, 
its  furniture,  the  temperature  of  the  rooms,  and  the  means  for  warming, 
lighting,  and  ventilating  them,  are  considered  either  in  separate  articles  in 
this  work,  or  under  the  head  of  IIyuienk,  School.  It  is  designed  here 
specially  to  treat  of  (1)  the  construction  of  the  school-house,  and  (II)  its 
internal  arrangement. 

I.  "What  material  should  be  used  in  the  construction  of  a  school  build- 
ing depends  entirely  upon  its  location  and  the  means  at  command.  Owing 
to  the  improved  modern  methods  of  building,  wood,  brick,  or 
Vonstruclion.  ^^^^^  may  be  used  indifferently,  as  far  as  healthfulness  is  con- 
cerned, economic  considerations  alone  deciding  which  is  to  beemjjloyed.  It 
may  be  said,  in  general,  that  these  considerations  point  to  the  use  of  stone 
or  brick  in  cities  and  towns,  and  of  wood  in  the  rural  districts,  except  in 
old  and  tliickly-settled  countries  where  wood  is  scarce.  The  increased 
attention  bestowed  upon  the  appearance  of  the  school-house  at  the  present 


SCHOOL-HOUSE  259 

time  is  one  of  the  most  encouraging  proofs  of  the  general  and  permanent 
interest  aroused  in  the  welfare  of  schools,  since  purely  esthetic  consider- 
ations are  generally  the  last  to  make  themselves  felt.  The  rudeness  of  the 
district-school  building  is  proverbial,  yet  the  expression  of  the  cherished 
memories  that  cluster  around  it  forms  a  part  of  the  choicest  literature  of 
every  civilized  country.  If  the  transfiguring  power  of  early  association, 
therefore,  renders  it  an  object  of  affection  through  life,  in  spite  of  its  un- 
couthness,  how  much  stronger  would  that  affection  be  if  the  matured  taste 
of  later  years  confirmed  the  preference  of  childhood !  Not  only  the  tes- 
timony of  eminent  writers,  but  the  unwritten  experience  of  every  observing 
I)erson,  bears  abundant  witness  to  the  subtle  and  enduring  influence  of  early 
associations;  and  now,  when  the  subject  of  education  is  receiving  so  large 
a  share  of  careful  thought,  with  a  view  to  discover  all  available  ways  to 
perfect  its  means  and  methods,  it  woidd  seem  that  this  powerful  agent 
should  not  be  neglected.  Without  squandering  money,  therefore,  to  make 
the  school-house  pretentious,  or  a  perfect  specimen  of  one  of  the  conven- 
tional orders  of  architecture,  pains  should  be  taken  that  it  should  not  be 
an  offense  to  the  eye,  or  out  of  harmony  with  the  landscape.  Since  this 
can  generally  be  done,  also,  without  any,  or  with  only  slight,  additional  cost, 
the  educational  value,  moral  and  esthetic,  of  the  appearance  of  the  school- 
house,  may  properly  be  included  in  the  plans  of  the  architect.  As  to  the 
solidity  of  the  school  building  in  all  its  parts,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
no  financial  objections  which  would  impair  this,  should,  for  a  moment,  be 
entertained.  The  contingencies  which  may  happen  at  any  moment  where 
large  numbere  of  children  are  gathered  together,  are  so  momentous  in  their 
character,  as  to  render  this  imperative.  The  size  of  the  school-house  should 
be  determined,  of  course,  by  the  number  of  pupils  it  is  intended  to  accom- 
modate. An  eminent  authority  says  that,  a  building  designed  for  an  un- 
graded school  to  be  taught  by  a  single  teacher,  should  contain,  at  least, 
yOO  sq.  ft.  of  floor  space;  being  intended  to  accommodate  from  50  to  80 
pupils.  In  regard  to  the  proper  size  of  class  rooms,  see  Hygiene,  School. 
II.  Every  district-school  house  should  have  a  vestibule,  a  main  room, 
and  one  or  more  class-rooms,  unless  the  school  is  taught  by  only  one 
teacher.  The  vestibule  should  be  commodious,  dry,  well-lighted. 
Internal  and  properly  supplied  with  pegs  for  hats  and  outer  garments, 
arrange-  j^g^^g^  wash  basins,  and  aU  means  for  ensuring  personal  clean- 
liness. In  mixed  schools,  it  should  be  divided  into  two  rooms. 
The  best  authorities  are  almost  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  the  shape  of 
the  school  room  proper  should  be  that  of  an  oblong  about  twice  as  long  as 
broad,  the  size  being  determined  by  the  probable  attendance.  The  ceiling 
should  be  from  12  to  15  feet  in  height,  the  controlling  consideration  being 
that  each  pupil  should  have  not  less  than  108  cubic  feet  of  air  space.  The 
door  and  the  teachers  desk  should  be  at  opposite  ends  of  the  room,  the 
former,  when  practicable,  at  the  southern  extremity,  the  northern  being 
without  windows,  and  provided  with  a  shallow  platform  about  15  inches 
hicrh.  This  arrangement  enables  the  teacher  to  survey  the  school,  and  is 
simple  and  convenient  for  examination  or  exhibition  purposes.  Very 
large  school  rooms  are  not  expedient,  experience  having  shown  that  a  large 
number  of  pupils  may  be  sitpervised  and  taught  to  better  advantage  iu 
two  rooms  of  medium  size,  the  teacher  having  an  assistant  for  the  purpose, 


260        SCHOOL  MANA(Ji:.MENT  —  HCllOOL  UHCORDS 

than  in  one  large  room.  A  separate  class  room  is  indispensable  in  all 
schools,  except  the  smallest,  the  number  being  increased  according  to  the 
size  of  the  school.  In  its  construction,  the  class  room  should  conform 
proportionally  to  the  school  room,  and  should,  if  possible,  be  in  immediate 
connection  with  it,  but  separable  from  it  completely  as  far  as  noise  is  con- 
cerned. The  teacher's  room,  in  small  schools,  could  be  utilized  as  the 
school  library,  or  as  a  temporary  storing  place  for  such  delicate  apparatus 
as  required  special  care.  Schools  of  other  grades  and  sizes  will,  of  course, 
require  a  different  arrangement  of  rooms.  Nearly  every  civilized  country, 
in  fact,  has  its  own  plans  for  the  construction  of  school- houses,  and  the 
arrangement  of  school  and  class  rooms,  determined  by  the  peculiarities  of 
its  scliool  system,  or  by  national  characteristics.  See  School  Fukniture. 
SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  is  a  department  of  the  teacher "s  profes- 
.sion  which  includes  (1)  the  organization  of  the  school,  and  (II)  its  conduct. 
Under  the  former, must  be  considered  (1)  the  classification  (see  Class); 
(2)  the  distribution,  as  to  order  and  time,  of  the  branches  to  be  taught, 
(course  of  instruction  and  programme);  and  (3)  the  proper  assignment  of 
the  work  of  instruction  (in  a  graded  school)  to  the  several  teacliers,  either 
in  accordance  with  the  class  system  or  with  the  departmental  system  (q.  v.). 
The  conduct  of  the  school  has  reference  (1)  to  instruction,  and  (2)  to 
discipline.  Great  care  should  be  taken,  by  means  of  a  carefully  con- 
structed programme,  or  daily  order  of  exercises,  to  secure  to  each  subject 
its  proper  amount  of  time,  according  to  its  place  in  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion, as  well  as  to  insure  an  equable  advancement  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
in  each  subject  of  the  grade,  as  preliminary  to  jjromotion.  The  promotion 
of  pupils  id  a  matter  of  great  practical  importance  in  the  management  of 
a  school.  One  of  the  most  serious  errors  made  by  teachers  is  the  too  rapid 
advancement  of  their  pupils.  Promotions  should  always  be  based  ujjon 
a  careful  examination;  and,  in  a  graded  school,  care  should  be  taken  that 
every  grade  is  passed  through  in  a  legitimate  manner,  that  is,  without  hurry 
or  cramming.  When  the  school  is  ungraded,  the  advancement  of  in- 
dividual pupils  is  to  be  considered;  but  there  is  the  same  need  of  avoiding 
haste,  so  as  to  secure  thorough  proficiency,  as  the  basis  of  pronjotion. 
Oovernment  is,  also,  an  important  dei)artnient  of  school  management; 
since,  without  efficient  government,  all  attempts  at  effective  school  instruc- 
tion must  be   fruitless.     (See  Coukse   of  Instkuction,  Discipline,  and 

(xOVERXMF.VT.) 

SCHOOL  RECORDS  are  of  great  importance,  both  in  connection 
witli  the  management  of  the  school  itself,  and  for  the  jiurpose  of  affording 
a  means  of  obtaining  accurate  and  valuable  returns  to  be  embodied  in  a 
general  system  of  school  statistics.  These  records  are,  therefore,  to  be  ar- 
ranged from  a  twofold  stand-point:  (I)  AVhat  are  needed  as  auxiliary  to 
the  keeping  and  instruction  of  the  school  itself;  and  (II)  What  are  required 
for  a  proper  ailministration  of  the  school  laws,  as  well  as  to  show  the  con- 
dition of  the  system  to  which  the  school  belongs,  and  the  jjrogress  of  edu- 
cation in  the  town,  city,  and  state  in  which  it  is  located,  as  compared  with 
other  j)laces. 

I.  For  the  carrying  out  of  the  first  object,  there  should  be  an  accurate 
registration  of  each  pupil's  name  and  age,  his  parents'  name,  the  date  of 
his  admission  into  the  .school,  of  his  successive  promotion  from  grade  to 


SCIENCE  2G1 

grade,  and  of  his  discharge,  "with  the  cause  of  the  same,  thus  pi'esenting 

a  history  in  outline  of  the  pupil's  whole  career  in  the  school. 
Register,  rp^^  register  kept  for  these  items  should  be  in  such  a  form  as  to 
be  easy  of  reference,  either  by  a  numerical  designation  of  the  pupils  in  the 
order  of  their  admission,  or  by  an  alphabetical  arrangement.  Auxiliary 
to  the  school-register,  there  may  be  (in  large  schools,  should  be)  an  admis- 
sion book,  and  a  discharge  hook,  the  entries  being  first  made  in  these 

books,  and  transferred  at  stated  times  (weekly  or  monthly)  into 
Auxmm-y  ^j-^p  register.     The  admission  book  should  contain  a  statement 

of  the  antecedents  of  the  pupil,  and  the  discharge  book,  the 
cause  of  his  leaving  the  school,  and  his  destination.  There  should,  also, 
be  books  showing  the  school  history  of  the  pupil  more  in  detail,  as  his 
daily  attendance,  conduct,  merit  and  demerit  marks  for  recitations,  etc. 
One  book,  usually  called  the  rollbook,  may  be  used  for  all  these  particulars, 
there  being,  in  a  graded  school,  one  such  book  for  each  class,  and  kept  by 
the  class  teacher.  In  this  book  may  also  be  entered  the  place  of  residence 
of  each  pupil,  in  order  to  facilitate  communication  with  the  parents.  The 
school  diary  is  auxiliary  to  this,  containing  transcripts  from  the  roll  book, 
with  summaries  of  marks  and  a  statement  of  class  standing,  the  pupil  being- 
required  to  take  this  diary  home  for  the  inspection  and  signature  of  his 
parents.  Other  records,  besides  those  enumerated,  may  be  kept  for  .special 
purposes;  but,  ordinarily,  these  are  all  that  are  indispensably  requisite  to 
carry  on  the  internal  operations  of  the  school. 

II.  The  records  made  necessary  by  the  provisions  of  law  xmder  which 
the  school  is  established  and  supported,  will  vary,  of  course,  with  the 
nature  of  those  provisions,  and  with  the  organization  of  the  system  to 

which  the  school  belongs.    But  there  are  certain  common  and 
reords     indispensable   features,  inasmuch   as   there  are  facts  which  alL 

school  records  for  this  purpose  should  aim  to  show,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  the  following:  (I)  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  during 
the  year;  (2)  The  average  enrollment,  or  "average  number  belonging"; 
(3)  The  number  in  attendance  at  each  session  of  the  school;  and  (4)  the 
number  of  pupils  of  each  grade,  and  of  certain  specified  ages.  —  No  at- 
tempt is  made  in  this  article  to  present  the  forms  of  these  records,  as  there 
is  a  wide  diversity  of  form  in  different  places,  and  as  the  form  is  of  second- 
ary importance  to  the  presenting  of  the  required  facts. 

SCIENCE,  the  Teaching-  of.  In  this  article,  the  treatment  will 
refer  to  the  teaching  of  science  (I)  as  a  branch  of  elementary  instruction, 
and  (II)  as  a  department  of  higher  education. 

I.   This  subject  is  one  into  which  great  confusion  has  been  introduced 

by  the  use  of  the  words  science  and  scientific  in  two  different  senses.     In 

.      the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  the  scientific  knowledge  of  a  sub- 

scimcT    J^^^  ^'^  ^  knowledge  of  the  laws  which  harmonize  and  explain 

its  various  phenomena.  Science  goes  beyond  mere  appearances, 
and  finds  that,  amidst  endless  variety,  there  is  unity;  and,  amid  apparent 
discord,  there  is  harmony.  In  this  sense,  it  is  the  highest  outcome  of  in- 
tellectual effort.  The  human  mind  deals  first  with  the  concrete.  For  a 
long  time  it  scarcely  rises  above  the  information  of  the  senses.  It  then 
groups  the  impressions  of  the  senses  into  more  comprehensive  unities,  and 
in  this  process  gains  a  certain  power  of  abstraction.    But  science  supposes 


2C2  SCIENCE 

that  the  mind  has  been  long  practiced  in  that  power  of  abstraction  and 
generalization.  It  views  in  succession  the  principal  facts  in  any  depart- 
ment of  nature  as  a  whole,  and  it  seeks  to  find  the  invisible  order  which 
pcrvales  them  all.  In  this  sense  of  the  term,  also,  all  subjects  admit  of 
scientific  treatment;  as  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  law  pervades  all  phe- 
nomena, there  must  be  a  science  of  mental  phenomena  as  well  as  of  physical 
phenomena;  and,  therefore,  no  single  phenomenon  can  exist  which  has  not 
its  own  place  in  the  system  of  the  universe.  But,  from  various  considera- 
tions, the  term  science  has  been  often  restricted  to  the  explanation  of  the 
laws  which  regulate  matter,  and  this  is  the  sense  in  which  it  is  u.sed  in 
this  article.  Now  it  is  plain  that,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  children 
cannot  be  taught  science.  If  the  scientific  stage  is  the  highest  in  the 
development  of  the  intellectual  faculties,  we  cannot  expect  to  find  it  in 
the  school.  Jt  belongs  to  the  university.  L'ut  we  may  lay  the  foundation 
of  it  at  an  earlier  period.  Indeed,  avc  cannot  liclp  doing  something  to- 
ward this  work;  but  we  may  do  it  awk^vardly  and  unconsciously,  or 
skillfully  and  consciously.  The  latter  is  the  function  of  the  educated 
teacher.  Vs'e  must,  therefore,  inquire  more  minutely  into  the  mode  in 
which  the  foundations  of  science  are  laid.  For  this  purpose  we  shall  quote 
the  words  of  the  late  Professor  Payne.  Science  he  defined  as  "  organ- 
ized knowledge"',  and,  after  explaining  the  meaning  of  oi-f/miized  in  this 
definition,  he  proceeds:    "  Eeturning  to  the  other  factor  of  the  definition, 

It')ioivle(k/p,  we  obsene  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  knowledge  — 

oi^riovl  "^^'^'^t  "^'c  knoAv  through  our  own  experience,  anil  what  we  know 

edge.       through  the  experience  of  others.     Thus,  1  know  by  my  own 

knowledge  that  I  have  an  audience  before  me,  and  1  know 
through  the  knowledge  of  others  that  the  earth  is  25,000  miles  in  circum- 
ference. 'I  his  latter  fact,  however,  I  know  in  a  sense  different  from  that 
in  which  I  know  the  former.  'J'he  one  is  a  part  of  my  experience,  of  my 
very  being.  The  other  I  can  only  be  strictly  said  to  know  when  I  have, 
by  an  effort  of  the  mind,  passed  through  the  connected  chain  of  facts  and 
reasonings  on  which  the  demonstration  is  founded.  'I'hus  only  can  it  be- 
come my  knowledge  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term.  Strictly  speaking, 
then,  organized  knowledge,  or  science,  is  originally  based  on  unorganized 
"knowledge,  and  is  the  outcome  of  the  learner"s  observation  of  facts 
through  the  exercise  of  his  senses,  and  his  own  reflection  upon  what  he  has 
observed.  This  knowledge,  ultimately  organized  into  science  through  the 
operation  of  his  mind,  he  may  with  just  right  call  his  own;  and,  as  a 
learner,  he  can  properly  call  no  other  knowledge  his  own.  AMiat  is  reported 
to  us  by  another  is  that  other "s,  if  gained,  at  first-hand,  by  experience;  but 
it  stands  on  a  different  footing  from  that  which  we  have  gained  by  our 
own  experience.  lie  merely  hands  it  over  to  us;  but,  when  we  receive  it, 
its  condition  is  already  changed.  It  wants  the  brightness,  definiteness, 
and  certainty  in  our  eyes,  Avhich  it  had  in  his;  and,  moreover,  it  is  merely 
a  loan,  and  not  our  property.  1"he  fact,  for  instance,  about  the  earth's 
circumference  was  to  him  a  living  fact;  it  sprung  into  being  as  the  out- 
come of  experiments  and  reasonings,  with  the  entire  chain  of  which  it 
was  seen  by  him  to  be  intimately  —  indeed,  indissolubly  and  organically 
—  connected.  To  us  it  is  a  dead  fact,  severed  from  its  connection  with  the 
body  of  truth,  and,  by  our  hypothesis,  having  no  organic  relation  to  the 


SCIENCE  263 

living  truths  we  have  gained  by  our  own  minds.  What  I  insist  on,  then, 
is,  that  the  knowledge  from  experience  —  that  which  is  gained  by  bring- 
ing our  own  minds  into  direct  contact  with  matter  —  is  the  only  knowl- 
edge that,  as  novices  in  science,  we  have  to  do  with.  The  dogmatic 
knowledge  imposed  on  us  by  authority,  though  originally  gained  by  the 
same  means,  is  really,  not  ours,  but  another's  —  is,  as  far  as  we  are  con- 
cerned, unorganizable,  and,  therefore,  though  science  to  its  proprietor,  is 
not  science  to  us.  To  us  it  is  merely  information,  or  hap-hazard  knowl- 
edge". —  The  account  here  given  contains  the  very  pith  of  the  matter,  and 
cannot  be  too  deeply  pondered  and  impressed  on  the  mind;  and  we  shall, 

therefore,  put  the  same  thoughts  in  another  shape.  The  child 
General-  ^^^^  perceives  individual  objects.  He  notices  the  qualities  in 
iza  ion.  ^j^ggg  objects;  and,  when  he  finds  the  same  qualities  recur  in 
different  individual  objects,  he  naturally  groups  them  together  under  the 
same  notion  or  name.  This  is  the  child's  first  effort  at  generalization. 
(See  IxTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION.)  Now,  it  is  plain  that  if  he  had  not 
known  the  individuals,  he  could  never  have  made  the  generalization;  and 
that,  if  any  one  were  to  tell  him  the  generalization  without  his  having  seen 

the  individuals  and  noticed  the  similarity,  the  generalization 
tea^iii  """o^^^d  be  of  no  real  use  to  him.  Out  of  this  fact  flow  some  of 
science,     the  principal  rules  in  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching  science  rv^ 

(1)  The  pupil  must  be  brought  face  to  face  with  nature;  h©'^- 
must  see  the  individual;  he  must  himself  make  the  experiment.  (2)  He 
must  make  the  generalization,  himself;  he  must  be  a  discoverer.  It  is  here, 
however,  that  the  skillful  teacher  can  wisely  interfere.  The  child,  if  left 
to  himself,  might  be  too  long  in  making  the  discovery,  for  he  might  not 
stumble  upon  individuals  which  contain  similarities.  The  teacher,  there- 
fore, takes  cai'e  to  bring  similar  individuals  before  his  pupils  in  sufficient 
number.  He  sternly  checks  his  own  wish  to  shorten  the  work  by  telling 
the  generalization;  but  he  prepares  the  way  for  the  pupil's  making  it  by 
adducing  instance  after  instance,  until  the  similarities  cannot  but  become 
visible  to  the  pupil's  mind.  And  this  rule  suggests  another,  —  that, 
wherever  it  is  possible,  the  pupil  shoidd  be  led  along  the  road  over  which 
mankind  traveled  in  making  the  discovery  originally.  He  must,  of  course, 
commit  many  blunders  before  he  reaches  the  truth;  yet,  under  a  skillful 
teacher,  such  a  process  is  eminently  educative.  But,  besides  the  making 
of  generalizations,  there  is  also  the  faculty  of  observation  to  be  carefully 
cultivated.  Indeed  the  cultivation  of  the  faculty  of  observation  is  essen- 
tially necessary  to  the  formation  of  correct  generalizations.  At  first,  the 
child  makes  his  generalizations  unconsciously.  He  sees  a  tree,  and  then 
another  tree,  and  then  another,  and  somehow  they  impress  him  as  being 
like;  but  he  has  no  accurate  conception  in  regard  to  the  points  in  which 
they  are  like.  —  Even  when  he  becomes  conscious  of  the  points  of  resem- 
blance in  objects,  he  may  find  that  the  resemblances  in  them  are  on  the 
surface,  and  that  there  are  greater  differences  separating  the  objects  from 
each  other.  He  is  now  coming  nearer  the  stage  in  which  he  can  deal  with 
a  subject  scientifically.  For  observation  has  to  furnish,  as  the  basis  of 
scientific  conceptions,  a  more  accurate  knowledge  than  that  possessed  by 
the  ordinary  observer.  The  pupil  has  to  notice  qualities  which  ordinarily 
escape  observation.     The  teacher  again  must  take  the  utmost  care  that 


20,4  .  SCIENCE 

the  pupil  has  really  observed  the  peculiarity  before  he  tells  him  the  special 
name  given  to  it.  Else  the  pupil's  mind  ^vill  be  crammed  with  a 
number  of  technical  terms  of  the  meaning  of  which  he  probably  will 
have  no  clear  conception;  and  even  should  he  have  a  clear  conception  of 
their  meaning  when  he  hears  it  from  his  teacher,  he  will  be  sure  to  forget 
it  very  soon.  In  one  word,  the  pupil  must  conquer  every  step  in  science 
by  personal  observation  and  experience.  He  must  find  out  every  thing 
himself.  The  teacher  has  simply  to  arrange  the  order  in  which  the  facts 
of  nature  are  to  be  presented  to  the  pupil,  and  to  lay  before  him  only 
those  phenomena  which  it  is  important  for  him  to  observe.  From  what 
has  been  said,  it  is  plain  that  the  plan  of  going  through  all  the  principal 
phenomena  of  a  science  is  not  to  be  adopted  in  schools.  This  is  a  method 
appropriate  only  to  the  last  stage  of  scientific  instruction.  The  teacher 
must  select  the  portions  of  science  which  will  be  most  educative;  and  he 
will  treat  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  interest  the  pupil,  and  make  him 
take  an  active  part  in  ascertaining  the  facts  of  nature.  At  the  same  time, 
he  will  take  care  to  make  his  various  lessons  bear  on  each  other.  Though 
he  does  not  disclose  a  law,  but  leaves  it  to  dawn  upon  the  pupil's  mind 
from  the  presentation  of  instances,  he  will  see  to  it  that  each  lesson  adds 
to  the  structure  which  the  previous  one  has  helped  to  raise.  He  will  have 
a  fixed  plan  in  his  own  mind;  and  he  will  look  forward  to  the  intellectual 
result  which  he  is  to  produce,  in  process  of  time,  by  the  examples  and  ex, 
periments  which  he  makes  the  pupil  observe  and  perform. 

In  all  these  considerations,  we  have  been  looking  at  science  as  a  sub- 
ject worthy  of  being  studied  for  its  own  sake.  This  is  unquestionably 
true.  The  intellectual  powers  of  man  are  an  essential  feature 
Othe)-co7i-  q£  nia^n's  nature,  and  they  demand  exercise.  This  exercise  is 
*  "^'invariably  accompanied  by  an  intense  pleasure.  Now,  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  nature  is  eminently  calculated  to  call  the  intellect- 
ual powers  into  activity,  and  therefore  it  opens  up  to  man  a  source  of 
pure  and  lasting  enjoyment.  But  the  teacher  may  look  on  the  knowledge 
of  science  from  other  points  of  view.  Man  is  corporeal,  and  his  physical 
well-being  depends  on  his  coming  into  proper  relations  with  phy.sical  nat- 
ure. It  Is  important  for  him  to  know  these  relations,  and  the  teacher  of 
youth  will  endeavor  to  enlighten  the  mind  of  his  pupil  in  regard  to  them. 
At  the  same  time,  these  relations  are  most  deeply  impressed  on  the  mind, 
when  the  facts  of  science  are  taught  according  to  the  laws  of  education. 
If  I 'inform  a  boy  that  carbonic  acid  gas  is  deleterious,  the  impression  is  of 
the  faintest  nature,  and  will  not  lead,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  to  any  ac- 
tion; but  if  I  show  the  boy  how  to  produce  carbonic  acid  gas  by  the  union 
of  its  component  elements,  that  is.  if  I  lead  him  to  make  experiments  by 
which  the  truth  will  be  forced  upon  his  mind  without  my  telling  him  that 
it  is  injurious  to  life;  and  if,  in  addition  to  this,  I  make  him  discover  that 
he  is  continually  exhaling  this  gas,  he  will  be  deeply  impressed  with  the 
necessity  of  ventilation,  and  will  make  every  effort  to  procure  it.  'J'hen, 
again,  nature  presents  herself  not  merely  as  the  embodiment  of  law  but 
afso  as  the  embodiment  of  beauty;  and  the  teacher  should,  therefore,  en- 
deavor to  bring  out  this  feature  occasionally.  He  will  point,  for  example, 
to  the  exquisite  structure  of  flowers;  he  will  lead  the  child  to_  feel  the 
loveliness  of  landscapes;  he  will  interest  him  in  the  habits  of  animals;  in 


SCIENCE  265 

fact,  he  will  try  to  make  nature  reveal  herself  to  him  in  her  concrete  love- 
liness and  variety. 

Among  the  questions  keenly  discussed  in  connection  with  science  teach- 
ing are  (i)  the  order  in  which  the  sciences  should  be  taught,  and  (2)  what 
^  sciences  are  suitable  for  schools.     Opinions  on  these  subjects 

selection  ^^^^  necessarily  differ  until  agreement  as  to  the  meaning  of 
terms  is  reached.  The  fact  is,  as  we  have  seen,  that  all  the 
sciences  call  for  processes  of  thought  which  can  be  reasonably  expected 
only  in  mature  minds;  but  it  is  true,  at  the  same  time,  that  separate  facts, 
in  all  these  sciences,  tending  toward  a  unity,  may  be  discovered  by  a  child 
of  eleven  or  twelve  years  of  age.  Faraday  said  that  chemistry  could  be 
taught  to  a  boy  of  eleven;  others  denied  that  it  could;  and  in  a  certain 
sense,  both  were  right  from  their  respective  points  of  view.  At  the  same 
time  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  facts  of  some  sciences,  in  the  average,  are 
much  more  complicated  than  those  of  other  sciences;  and,  therefore,  there 
is  wisdom  in  teaching  them  in  a  certain  order.  Botany,  for  instance,  is 
among  the  simplest  of  the  sciences.  It  calls  into  play  the  power  of  minute 
observation.  The  child  is  interested  in  examining  the  structure  of  the 
plant  and  the  growth  of  the  various  parts.  An  appeal  is  also  made  to  his 
powers  of  grouping  or,  in  other  words,  of  classification.  And  the  pupil 
has  a  large  field  in  botany  for  these  two  activities.  (See  Botany.)  The 
same  is  true  of  the  other  science  of  classification,  zoology;  but  the  processes 
are  a  little  more  complicated.  It  should,  therefore,  naturally  follow 
botany.  From  these,  the  pupil  should  proceed  to  some  department  of 
physics,  and  from  that,  advance  to  chemistry.  The  one  should  go  before 
the  other,  because  the  processes  of  chemical  motion  are  much  more  dif- 
ficult to  observe  accurately  than  those  of  mechanical  motion.  And  the 
course  of  science  might  well  end  with  physiology,  in  which  many  of  the 
modes  of  reasoning  employed  are  abstruse,  and  the  student  is  continually 
liable  to  be  misled  by  appearances  and  analogies. 

II.  One  of  the  most  important  aims  of  the  educator  is  to  lead  man  to 
recognize  how  to  live  most  successfully  for  himself;  to  realize  the  responsi- 
bilities of  his  position,  and,  by  seeking  to  comply  with  these  re- 
vm-taiit    sponsibilities,  to  attain  to  the  greatest  possible  happiness.     In 
aim.      this  process  of  education,  the  student  must  be  led  to  recognize 
the  material  and  physical  conditions  of  his  existence;  to  know 
himself,  not  as  an  independent  being,  but  as  one  dependent  upon  the  mul- 
tifarious conditions  of  the  vast  scheme  of  nature,  and  as  one,  who,  alike 
in  what  he  is   and  in  that  of  which  he  is  capable,  is  strictly  under  the 
control  of  natural  law.     In  other  words,  man  can  only  know  himself  by 
comparison  with  other  objects  in  nature,  —  can  only  know  his  powers  by 
comparison  with  the  forces  by  which  other  forms  of  matter  are  controlled. 
Of   J     f    Again,  as  a  mere  question  of  material  prosperity,  the  study  of 
'natural    ^^^t^ral  science  is  forced  upon  our  consideration.    No  thoughtful 
science.    ™an  wandering  through  the  aisles  of  a  great  international  exhibi- 
tion can  fail  to  see  that  all  progress  in  applied  science  and  the 
arts  must  be  based,  in  the  first  place,  upon  an  exact  knowledge  of  natural 
resources,  material  and  physical.     It  will  be  admitted  that  knowledge  of 
all  kinds  is  fundamentally  based  upon  the  evidence  of  our  senses,  but  such 
evidence  is  apt  to  mislead,  unless  checked  by  experiment;  experiment,  to 


266  SCIENCE 

be  of  real  utility,  must  be  exact  and  systematic.  The  reasoning  that 
draws  conclusions  from  such  experinients  must  be  logical;  and  language, 
at  once  ample  and  exact,  is  required  as  an  implement,  only  of  value  when 
wielded  with  precision,  to  widen  the  fields  of  inquiry  with  the  utmost 
economy  of  mental  labor.  ^Ve  are  compelled  to  make  these  remarks 
because  the  true  importance  of  a  scientitic  study  of  nature  has  not  been 
recognized  by  the  greater  part  of  those  who  are  engaged  in  education.  A 
knowledge  of  the  leading  truths  of  natural  science  is,  however,  essential  to 
education,  (1)  because  of  their  fundamental  character,  and  (2)  because  of 
.  .  the  method  by  which  such  sciences  are  pursued,  which  method 
^seniial  ^to  ^^  ^^^^  same  as  that  which  ought  to  obtain  in  every-  action  of  our 
education,  every-day  lives.    Comparing  the  training  given  by  language  and 

mathematics  with  that  given  by  natural  science,  we  see  that, 
whilst  language  cultivates  the  memory,  and  mathematics  trains  the  reason- 
ing faculties,  neither  affords  any  means  for  the  cultivation  of  observation 
and  experiment.  Turning  to  the  natural  sciences  themselves,  we  find  that 
the  physical  branches  cultivate  observation,  experiment,  and  inductive 
reasoning;  while  the  material  branches,  including  the  natural  history 
sciences,  cultivate  especially  the  faculties  of  observation  and  systematic 
classification.  But,  in  addition  to  this,  from  the  multitudinous  chda  with 
which  the  latter  deal,  and  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  complete  scries  of 
such  data,  these  studies  inevitably  lead  the  inquiring  mind  to  a  constant 
consideration  of  probabilities,  or,  in  other  words,  to  a  habit,  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  us  practically,  of  justly  weighing  circumstantial  evidence. 
In  view  of  the  vast  mass  of  facts  accumulating  more  and  more  rapidly  each 
day  from  the  various  fields  of  scientific  investigation,  it  is  impossible  that 
any  human  mind  can  grasp  ail  the  details  of  even  a  single  branch.  The 
following  considerations  are,  however,  important  in  this  view  of  education: 
(1)  that,  by  experience  in  some  two  sciences,  the  one  physical  and  the  other 
relating  to  the  forms  a.ssumed  by  matter,  the  student  should  learn  the 
principles  on  which  these  natural  sciences  are  pursued,  and  therefrom  be 
able  to  appreciate  the  value  of  scientific  training  and  knowledge;  (2)  that 

he  should  understand  the  general  scope  of  the  various  scien- 

Wliat  the  ces;   (3)  that  he  should  be  familiar  with   the  broad  generali- 

huM     nations  of  science;  (4)  that  he  should  not  be  ignorant  of  such 

learn,      common  scientific  details  as  occur  to  us  every  day,  and  have  an 

immediate  and  direct  connection  with  our  welfare  and  success  in 
life;  and  (.5)  that  he  .should  be  taught  how  to  obtain  information  by  refer- 
ence, and  how  to  weigh  the  tru.stworthincss  of  authorities.  In  order  that  the 
second  and  third  of  these  requirements  may  be  intelligently  obtained,  they 
must  logically  be  preceded  by  the  first,  and  simultaneously  the  acquisition 
of  the  knowledge  implied  by  the  fifth  may  well  be  conmienced.  In  the 
physical  branches  of  scientific  inquiry,  qualitative  analytical  chemistry 
theoretically  best  meets  the  requirements  of  the  case;  in  the  material 
sciences,  we   may  select   one   of  those  which  are   called  natural  historji 

sciences.  Under  this  head,  certain  of  the  natural  sciences  which 
Natural    fj-gat  of  the  living  forms  of  matter  were  formerly  included;  but 

the  term  is  a  most  indefinite  one,  and  must  cease  to  be  used  at 
all,  if  confined  to  its  old  signification.  The  sciences  especially  included 
under  it,  botany  and  zoology,  have  been  placed  upon  altogether  new  and 


SCIENCE  OF  GOVERNMENT  267 

broader  foundations  as  branches  of  biology,  so  that  they  now  cover 
morphological  and  physiological  ground  never  contemplated  in  the  old 
use  of  the  term.  'Fhere  would  seem  to  be  a  propriety  in  using  the  term 
to  express  that  pursuit  of  nature  which  is  essentially  out-of-door  in  its 
character,  —  the  study  of  the  external  relationship  of  beings  to  each  other; 
and  in  this  view  we  should  certainly  need  to  include  geological  investiga- 
tions. At  the  same  time,  it  will  be  apparent  to  every  naturalist  that  the 
scope  of  such  a  term  could  not  be  rigorously  defined.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  an  out-of-door  study  of  nature  ought  to  be  an  essential  element 
of  education.  It  may  be  long  before  it  is  generally  introduced  into  the 
course  of  school  education,  but  it  should  certainly  be  enforced  upon  the 
community  as  a  duty  at  least  in  home  culture.  It  should  be  used  to  cul- 
tivate habits  of  close,  exact  and  systematic  observation,  commenced  in 
the  field  and  continued  in  the  laboratory;  of  judiciously  collecting,  care- 
fully preserving  and  classifying,  some  one  or  more  series  of  natural  objects; 
and  of  referring  for  information  not  to  be  obtained  by  personal  inquiry, 
regarding  the  objects  observed  and  collected,  to  trustworthy  sources.  By 
well-judged,  training  in  either  botany  or  any  one  of  the  branches  of  zoology, 
the  ends  above  indicated  may  be  attained;  whilst  the  general  spirit  of  ob- 
servation and  inquiry  in  the  wide  field  of  natural  science  that  will  be  en- 
couraged, will  lead  to  a  breadth  and  liberality  of  mental  tone.  Nor  need 
this  general  and  more  desultory  observation  be  dreaded,  as  apt  to  lead  to 
hasty,  unfounded,  and  inexact  acquirements,  if  the  mind  is  duly  drained, 
as  had  been  suggested,  in  rigorous  methods  of  thought  by  the  exact  pursuit 
of  some  special  subject  of  scientific  study.  If  there  be  any  truth  in  the 
suggestions  just  thrown  out,  it  will  be  apparent  that  such  training  in  the 
natural  history  sciences  cannot  be  commenced  too  early  in  life,  because  the 
spirit  of  the  training  is  such  that  it  should  imbue  the  entire  mental  cult- 
ure of  the  individual;  and,  furthermore,  if  this  early  training  has  been 
neglected,  the  study  of  science  in  an  advanced  period  of  education,  will 
not  be  so  successful,  because  it  will  lack  the  vivid  conceptions  which  can 
only  be  acquired  by  the  exercise  of  the  observing  faculties  in  early  life. 
It  only  remains  to  add  that,  as  all  teaching  by  the  very  nature  of  these 
sciences  must  be  objective,  the  duty  of  the  instructor,  at  every  stage  of 
science  teaching,  is  to  supplement  nature  and  not  to  take  her  place,  — 
not  to  impart  information  but  to  guide  the  pupil  in  the  self- 
Ueteacfer  acquirement  of  knowledge.  Books,  similarly,  are  only  to  be 
'  permitted  as  dictionaries  to  explain  such  points  as  the  pupil 
cannot  elucidate  by  his  own  efforts.  —  For  a  valuable  list  of  works  on  this 
subject,  see  CifcloprpcUa  of  Education  and  the  Appendix  of  this  work. 

SCIENCE  OF  GOVERNMENT,  the  name  given  to  a  branch  of 
instruction  in  primary  or  secondary  schools,  which  is  designed  to  impart 
to  the  pupils  a  knowledge  of  the  political  system  under  which  they  liv^e, 
and  to  make  them,  as  far  as  requisite,  familiar  with  the  different  functions 
of  government,  and  the  mode  in  which  they  are  performed.  It,  generally, 
includes  a  consideration  of  the  constitution  of  the  country  or  state,  the 
qualifications  and  duties  of  the  principal  officers  of  government,  the  legal 
restrictions  imposed  upon  citizens,  and  an  outline  of  civil  and  municipal 
regulations.  Many  excellent  treatises  have  been  prepared  for  this  purpose 
for  use  in  elementary  schools;  and.  there  can  be  no  question  of  the  value  of 


268      SFX'ONDARY  IXSTRUCTIOX  —  SELF-EDUCATION 

this  department  of  instruction  for  all  classes  of  pupils,  particularly  in 
public  schools,  one  of  the  most  important  objects  of  which  is  to  prepare  for 
intelligent  and  useful  citizenship. 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION,  that  grade  of  instruction  which 
is  usually  afforded  in  high  schools,  academies,  etc.,  or  in  institutions  above 
the  ordinary  grade  of  a  common  or  primary  school.  This  grade  of  instruc- 
tion is  intermediate  between  primary  instruction  and  superior  instruction, 
or  that  afforded  in  colleges  and  universities. 

SELF-EDUCATION,    that   development   of  the   powers  which  is 
carried  on  by  the  individual  himself,  without  the  aid  of  others.     To_  a 
certain  extent,  this  education  is  not  only  unconscious,  but  in- 
What  it  is.  evitable.     'I'he  constant  recurrence  of  like  conditions  or  actions, 
the  knowledge  of  which  is  conveyed  to  the  individual  by  the  senses,  during 
the  gi-owth  of  mind  and  body,  is  always  attended  with  an  increased  skill  in 
the  use  of  the  powers  of  both,  which,  of  itself,  constitutes  an  education. 
The  agents  by  which  this  knowledge  is  converted  into  an  un- 
Agentif.     conscious  education  are  chiefly  habit  and  experience;  the  one 
producing  increased  ease  of  action  under  like  circumstances,   and  thus 
rendering  the  individual  more  capable;  the  other  enabling  him  to  system- 
atize his  knowledge,  and  to  use  it  as  an  instrument  for  further  acquisition. 
To  determine,  in  all  cases,  just  where  this  education  ceases,  and  voluntary 
.       self-education  begins,  would  probably  be  veiy  difficult;  yet,  in 
Limit,      ggj^gj-ai^  i(;  j^^j^y  i^g  said  tliat  the  active  intervention  of  the  will 
is  the  most  obvious  feature  by  which  self-education  may  be  distinguished. 
It  is  usually  regarded  as  that  education  which  is  carried  on  intentionally, 
outside,  or  beyond  the  influence,  of  the  school.     Even  here,  however,  the 
definition  is  imperfect;  for  it  must  always  bo  difficult  to  estimate  at  its 
true  comparative  value  the  strength  of  each  of  two  impulses  which  act  thus 
at  the  same  time  and  invisibly;  but,  probably,  a  truer  conception  of  the 
two  powers,  self-education  and  school  education,  may  be  acquired  by  sup- 
])Osing  the  difference  between  them  to  be  one  of  function  rather  than  of 
degree  —  school  education  .serving  rather  as  a  director  or  systematizer  of 
])o\ver,  while  self-education  must'oftcn  be  looked  upon  as  identical  with 
innate  power,  from  our  inability  to  separate  the  one  from  the  other.     "We 
know   what  training  the  school  gives;  and,  though  we  cannot  analyze  the 
results  it  produces  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  assign  to  the  school  and  to 
the    individual    the   proper   share   due   to    each,   we   know   from   many 
compariisons  made  between  countries  with  schools  and  those  without  them, 
that  the  advantage  lies  decidedly  with  the  former.     That  the  school  is 
rather  a  director  of  power  than  a  creator  of  it,  is  shown  by  contrasting  the 
large  number  of  men  who  jiavc  enjoyed  its  advantages  without  manifesting 
special  ability  afterward  iu  any  walk  of  life,  with  those  who  have  risen  to 
the  higiiest  positions  without  this  privilege.    Education  is  of  two 
l--^'(hnf   kinds,— practical   and   theoretical,  the  first  based  principally 
cducatiolu  "P^n   facts  and   experience,  and  dealing  largely  with  human 
'  nature;  the  other,  acquired   from  books,  and  concerning  itself 
in  great  measure  with  abstractions  and  theories  which,  though  valuable 
enough  for  purposes  of  general  culture,  are  of  little  use  in  practical  life, 
and,  if  exclusively  pursued,  produce  a  positive  disqualification  for  it.     Of 
these  two  kinds  of  education,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  former 


SELF-EDUCATIOX  26!) 

is  the  more  available,  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  in  a  vast  majority  of 
cases.  Hence,  it  should  never  be  forgotten  by  the  educator,  that  the  facil- 
ities for  mental  acquisition  which  he  offers  the  pupil  by  systematic 
instruction,  too  frequently  result  in  vacillation,  or  feebleness  of  purpose, 
and  are  almost  inevitably  accompanied  with  a  loss,  on  the  part  of  the  latter, 
of  that  vividness  of  apprehension  which  experimental  acc[uaintauce  gives. 
The  only  amends,  therefore,  he  can  make  is  to  render  his  instruction  as 
practical,  and  as  far  removed  from  mere  book-learning,  as  possible.  Knowl- 
edge and  rote-learning  have  often  a  wonderful  resemblance, 
Self-taught  -^yi^iie,  essentially,  they  may  have  nothing  in  common.  The 
picture  of  a  Lincoln,  hastily  gathering  book-knowledge  by  the 
light  of  the  cabin  fire;  or  of  a  Franklin,  finding  in  the  intervals  of  his  work 
in  a  chandler's  shop  and  a  printing  office,  an  equivalent  for  the  school, 
should  be  a  sufficient  admonition  to  every  teacher,  that  the  privileges  of 
the  school  room  are  not  indispensable  to  the  most  brilliant  success.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  midtiply  instances  of  self-taught  men;  the  ranks  of  great- 
ness have  been  almost  exclusively  filled  from  tliis  class.  Three  most  valu- 
able attributes  are  strengthened,  if  not  created,  by  a  course  of 
"^'^'^""^^^''^self-education:  self-confidence,  independence  of  judgment,  and 
education,  perseverance.  He  only  who  has  always  depended  upon  himself, 
knows  accurately  the  limit  of  his  powers,  measures  beforehand 
every  difficvalty,  and  does  not  look,  at  the  last  moment,  for  extraneous  aid; 
while  the  habit  of  self-reliance  thus  cultivated,  lays  the  foundation  for  a 
solidity  of  character  which,  in  critical  moments,  is  not  swayed  by  fitful  or 
transient  influences.  The  third  attribute,  perseverance,  is  the  necessary 
result  of  such  an  education.  Having  always  been  accustomed  to  encounter 
obstacles,  and  having  alwaj^s  overcome  them,  the  joy  of  conflict  and  the 
joy  of  conquest,  become,  to  self-taught  men,  synonymous.  The  atmosphere 
of  difficulty  is  as  the  breath  of  life  and  the  result  is  never  doubtful  to 
those  who  gather  strength  from  opposition.  These  are  the  most  essential 
elements  of  success,  and,  in  practical  matters,  weigh  more  than  all  the 
advantages  of  the  school.  On  the  other  hand,  the  commonest 
vanta  e^  error  of  the  self-taught  man  is  a  depreciation  of  all  studies  or 
pursuits  which  have  no  practical  bearing.  General  culture  — 
knowledge  for  itself  alone,  with  all  the  pleasures  and  consolations  which 
it  brings  —  is  underestimated.  Accustomed  always  to  see  his  thoughts 
followed  by  tangible  results,  the  moral  aspect  of  thought  is  lost  sight  of; 
and  his  ideal  standard  never  rises  above  this  utilitarian  level.  This 
narrowness  of  mind  leads  alniost  inevitably  to  a  want  of  sympathy  with 
liberal  pursuits,  and  sometimes  to  a  kind  of  hardness  or  positiveness  of 
character  which  bears  the  appearance  of  arrogance.  AVeakness  being  scarcely 
understood  by  the  successful,  self-taught  man,  want  of  charity  is  a  natural 
fruit  of  his  habits  of  thought.  These  defects,  however,  are  frequently 
removed  by  age;  and,  even  at  their  worst,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  so  serious 
as  those  which  have  been  cited  as  inci.lent  to  misdirected  education  in  the 
school.  Of  the  two  kinds  of  education  —  self-education  and  school  educa- 
tion, it  may,  therefore,  be  said  in  general,  that  the  former  is  of  greater  value 
than  the  latter;  that  for  all  practical  action  in  the  familiar  matters  of  daily 
life,  all  great  emergencies,  whether  of  peace  or  war,  which  rec[uire  inde- 
pendence of  judgment,  promptness  of   decisioa  or  action,  and  inflexibly 


270  SEMINARY  —  SENSES 

perseverance,  the  self-taught  man  is  vastly  the  superior;  while,  in  purely 
speculative  pursuits,  in  researches  or  projects  undertaken  without  liope  of 
immediate  or  material  result,  the  man  of  the  schools,  whose  education  has 
been  conducted  with  that  broader  outlook  ujoon  life  which  leads  directly 
to  culture  solely  for  its  own  sake,  manifests  a  far  greater  zeal  and  activity. 
Neither  kind  of  education  is  to  be  commended  by  iiself;  since  the 
deficiencies  of  one  need  to  be  supplied  by  the  advantages  of  the  other. 

SEMINARY  (Lat.  seminarium)  a  place  where  seed  is  sown,  from 
semen,  seed),  a  term,  used  in  education  to  denote  an  institution  of  k-arniug 
of  any  grade,  though  oftener  applied  to  one  of  secondary  grade.  It  is  also 
applied  to  certain  kinds  of  professional  schools;  as  a  theological  seminary, 
u  teachers'  seminary,  etc.,  the  idea  intended  to  be  conveyed  by  the  term 
being  that  of  preparation  for  subsequent  usefulness. 

SENSES,  the  Education  of  the.  Education,  through  the  senses, 
has  received  a  great  amount  of  attention  in  recent  times,  and  a  special 
effort  to  systematize  it,  is  made  in  the  kindergarten  (q.  v.) ;  but  compara- 
tively little  thought  has  been  given  to  the  training  of  the  senses  themselves. 
And,  yet,  there  is  ample  experience  to  prove  that  much  can  be 
aiue  of.  ^Q^Q  j]j  ^ijjg  (lii'cction.  In  cases  where  special  senses  have  been 
called  into  the  most  vigorous  action,  they  have  attained  capabilities  whicli 
could  scarcely  have  been  dreamed  of.  It  may  not  be  advisable  to  attempt 
to  cultivate  each  sense  in  every  individual  to  the  same  degree  of  acute- 
ncss  that  has  been  reached  in  these  extraordinary  instances;  but,  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  neglect  to  train  the  senses,  now  almost  universal,  is  not 
justifiable.  The  special  attributes  which  wc  may  assign  to  the  senses,  are 
(piickncss  in  receiving  impressions,  strength  in  taking  hold  of  the  impres- 
sions, and  vivacity  in  noticing  not  merely  the  unity  which  is  presented  to 
the  mind,  but  in  remarking  the  various  details  which  compose  or  char- 
acterize this  unity.  These  three  qualities  are  quite  different  from  each 
other.  If  an  object  is  held  up  before  a  number  of  children,  some  will  be 
found  able  to  form  an  impression  of  it  much  more  quickly  than  others, 
while  some  will  be  very  slow  to  catch  a  notion  of  it.  So,  again,  they  will 
differ  in  the  strength  of  grasp  with  which  they  seize  Jiold  of  the  object. 
On  some  it  will  produce  but  a  feeble  impression,  and  that  impression  will, 
consequently,  soon  die  away;  but  by  others  the  object  will  be  grasped 
firmly,  and,  consequently,  held  firmly.  Many,  too,  that  may  be  able  to 
take  strong  imprei^sions,  may  be  surpassed  by  others  of  less  strength  in  the 
capacity  to  catch  the  multiplicity  of  details  which  are  presented  to  the 
view.  In  fact,  the  strong  sense  is  generally  absorbed  in  the  imity;  but  the 
less  vigorous  notices  the  details  along  with  the  imity.  Now,  these  quali- 
ties are  inborn  with  the  senses;  and  it  is  likely  that  the  original  difference, 
in  these  respects,  Avhich  exists  in  different  minds,  is  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  mental  differences  that  ultimately  appear  among  human  beings. 
Circumstances  will  explain  the  rest  of  the  phenomena;  but  these  qualities 
are  capable  of  cultivation,  being  intensified  in  proportion  to  the  healthy 
exercise  of  the  senses. 

In  attempting  to  train  the  senses,  the  most  essential  process  is 

3/os<  essen-  Jgolation.    'J'he  blind  man  becomes  singularly  expert  in  the  sense 

'of  touch  because  lie  brings  it  into  continual  play,   and  trusts 

much  to  it.  He  must  voluntarily  follow  the  course  which  necessity  compels 


SENSES  271 

him  to  follow.  Science  has  not  thrown  much  light,  as  yet,  on  the 
lower  senses;  and,  therefore,  little  can  be  done  for  their  training.  The 
vital  sense  is  so  closely  connected  with  processes  which  take  place  in  un- 
consciousness that  little  can  be  made  of  it.  Somewhat  more  can  be  done 
with  the  senses  of  taste  and  smell.  If  the  child  were  asked  to 
andTtnell  ^^^*  ^"^  ^^^^'  ^^^  determine  by  taste  what  objects  were  pre- 
sented to  him,  the  sense  might  become  much  more  perfect  and 
much  more  useful.  Attention  could  be  called  to  the  general  harmony 
that  exists  between  the  taste  and  healthfulness  of  objects,  and  the  child 
might  thus  learn,  in  many  cases,  to  choose  the  good  and  reject  the  evil. 
ITie  same  remarks  apply  to  the  sense  of  smell;  but  a  wider  range  could  be 
given  to  its  activities.  'J'he  child,  for  example,  might  be  required  to 
determine  flowers  by  their  smells.  But  it  is  when  we  come  to  the  higher 
senses  that  much  can  be  done  by  isolating  practice.  In  regard  to  the  sense 
of  touch,  there  are  three  exercises  which  may  be  usefully  prac- 
louci.  tjgg(j_  First,  the  sense  of  touch  over  the  body  may  be  rendered 
much  more  acute;  and,  in  consequence,  what  are  called  the  sensory 
circles,  very  much  narrowed.  Experiment  has  proved  this  fact  most  con- 
clusively. Then,  from  touch  Ave  derive  the  sense  of  pressure.  Here  the 
child  may  find  interesting  exercise  in  trying  to  estimate  the  weight  of  an 
object  from  its  pressure  on  the  hand,  or  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  This 
constitutes  one  of  the  peculiar  exercises  of  object  teaclnng  (q.  v.).  More- 
over, touch  gives  the  notion  of  temperature;  and  here  again  the  child 
might  be  taught  to  come  very  close  to  the  exact  degree  of  Fahrenheit  by 
.  the  sense  of  heat  which  he  has  in  his  touch.  The  training  which 
Hearing.  ^^^  ^^  given  to  the  sense  of  hearing,  is  also  various.  The 
child  might  be  exercised  in  ascertaining  from  what  direction  sounds  come. 
He  might  be  taught  to  distinguish  various  sounds,  and,  especially,  musical 
sounds;  and  he  might  learn  to  analyze  complex  sounds.  Some  think,  that 
the  last  exercise  should  always  be  preliminary  to  learning  to  read.  Thus, 
the  instructor  utters  a  word,  and  draws  the  child's  attention  to  the  fact 
that  it  consists  of  several  sounds.  The  child  is  then  asked  to  analyze  the 
sounds;  and  the  child  does  not  commence  to  learn  to  read  until  he  is  able 
to  analyze  short  words  into  their  simplest  sounds.  Spelling,  in  the  sense 
of  analyzing  the  sounds,  according  to  this  method,  precedes  reading. 
According  to  the  p7^07H■c  method,  the  analysis  of  sounds  is  employed  to 
facilitate  the  pronunciation  of  words,  and,  hence,  as  auxiliary  to  reading. 
(See  Phonic  SIethod.)  —  The  sense  of  sight  is  the  one  through  which 
education  takes  place  most  of  all.  It  is,  therefore,  brought  into 
*'^  •  continual  activity,  and  thus  receives  greater  training.  In  the 
object-teaching  system,  this  is  accomplished  in  various  ways,  but,  particu- 
larly, by  the  use  of  color  (q.  v. ) .  Distinct  colors  are  first  brought  before 
the  child's  eye,  and  he  is  gradually  practiced  in  distinguishing  them,  so  as, 
ultimately,  to  be  able  to  note  the  minutest  shades  of  difference.  Then, 
again,  the  child  is  taught  to  form  from  sight  an  accurate  idea  of  size  and 
distance. 

The  space  here  does  not  admit  of  more  than  a  mere  glance  at  this  im- 
portant subject;  and  only  in  connection  with  the  training  of  children. 
But,  while  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  greatest  good  can  be  done  in  the 
earliest  years,  the  training  may  profitably  be  continued  throughout  the 


272  SENTENTIAL  ANALYSIS  —  SINGING 

whole  period  of  education.  The  organization  of  methods  for  such  train- 
ing has  still  to  be  discussed  by  educationists.  Moreover,  physiologists  are 
still  in  great  uncertainty  as  to  many  points.  Great  discoveries  have  been 
recently  made  by  the  researches  of  ^^'eber,  Wundt,  Helmholtz,  and  others; 
but  we  may  expect  still  more  important  discoveries  from  the  investiga- 
tions now  going  on;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  such  discoveries  will 
throw  light  on  the  proper  method  of  training  the  senses.  —  8ce  G.  Wil- 
son, The  Five  Ga/ewm/s  of  Knowledge  (4th  ed.,  London,  1863);  Wyld, 
Physics  and  Philosophy  of  the  Senses  (London,  1856) ;  Julius  Bernstein, 
The  Five  Senses  of  3Ian  (N.  Y. ,  1 876).     (See  also  Ear,  and  Eye.) 

SENTENTIAL  ANALYSIS.     See  Analysis,  Grammatical. 

SIMULTANEOUS  INSTRUCTION.     See  Concert  Teaching. 

SINGING.  From  the  days  of  St.  Ambrose  and  Gregory  the  Great 
to  the  present  age,  singing-schools  and  classes  have  existed,  for  purposes 
of  instruction  in  elementary  vocal  and  choral  exercises.  The  need  of  early 
training  has  always  been  recognized  by  the  great  masters  as  indispensable 
to  extensive  and  thorough  accomplishment  in  this  art.  The  educational 
value  of  music,  and  more  particularly  vocal  music,  has  been  universally 
conceded  by  both  theoretical  and  practical  educators,  as  well  as  by 
statesmen  and  philanthropists.  Martin  Luther  attached  very  great  im- 
portance to  it;  and  through  him  the  choral  and  the  special  hymn  were 
given  to  all  the  people.  Subsequently,  not  only  Germany,  but  Great 
liritain,  and  the  United  States  of  America,  greatly  encouraged  the  cul- 
tivation of  vocal  music,  in  its  higher  relations,  among  all  classes  of  people. 
It  is  the  opinion  of  some,  however,  that  the  people  of  the  United  States 
are  a  century  behind  the  more  powerful  and  influential  of  the  European 
nations  in  a  systematic  fostering  of  the  science  and  art  of  music  by  the 
state;  but,  through  the  more  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  by  means  of 
schools,  the  press,  and  other  agencies,  the  individual  efforts  of  Americans 
are  widespread,  toward  imparting  a  more  thorough  understanding  of  that 
which  is,  to  the  vast  majority  of  people,  an  unknown  language;  namely, 
the  secret  of  the  independent  reading  of  vocal  music  with  facility. 

The  origin  of  the  staff,  and  the  use  of  the  syllables  Ut,  Be,  Mi,  Fa, 
Sol,  La,  Si,  seem  to  have  been  nearly  contemporary.    These,  together  with 
the  clefs,  notes,  and  chromatic  signs,  constitute  the  written  language  of 
Lan     a      '""^'^  ^^    recognized  by  every  civilized  country;  and  it  is  not 
o/inusic.  possible  to  change  them  for  the  letters  only,  valuable  as  these 
■  are  in  certain  relations,  without  disastrously  revolutionizing  the 
whole  written  system  of  modern  music,  and  all  its  magnificent  accessories. 
Large  numbers  of  most  valuable  works  upon  harmony,  counterpoint,  and 
orchestral  effects  have  been  written,  besides  innumerable  scores,  with  all 
of  those  well  known  musical  signs,  and  with  the  eni]i]oyment  of  the  syl- 
lables L%  lie,  Mi,  etc.,  as  denoting  absolute  pitch  constantly  in  view;  and 
to  reduce  them  to  the  dimensions  of  lettered  signs  simply,  and  require 
singers   and  players  to  translate  them   into  music  agreeable  to  the  ear, 
would  be  an  interminable  and  tedious  task.     The  modern  Italian  method 
of  presenting  the  scale  through  the  familiar  sjdlablcs  Bo,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol, 
La,  Si,  Las  the  merit  of  being  direct  and  of  appealing  to  the  ear;  and  it  is, 
Italian      '''•Iso,  quite  unique,  since  tlie  syllables  are  at  once  the  vehicles  of 
method,      variations  of  sound  required  in  rendering  the  scale,  and  the 


SINGING  2T3 

signs  denoting  absolute  pitch,  like  the  letters  to  the  Germans  and  to 
the  English.  So  that,  by  this  method,  the  pupil  has  to  remember  only 
one  particular  syllable,  either  in  naming  a  key-note  or  in  singing  it.  To 
the  Italians  and  to  the  French,  and  to  very  many  others  who  have  been 
taught  by  this  method,  this  association  of  a  certain  syllable  with  a  certain 
key-note,  that  particular  syllable  being  the  very  vehicle  for  the  production 
of  the  tune  desired,  is  deemed,  in  many  respects,  an  advantage.  The  fixed 
and  immovable  I)o  becomes  the  middle  C  of  the  system.  All  other  tones 
of  that  octave,  diatonic  and  chromatic,  revolve  around  it,  as  the  planets 
around  the  sun.  I'he  major  scale,  with  its  intermediate  hatf-toaes,  be- 
comes the  nucleus  of  the  entire  tonal  system.  In  exact  proportion  as  the 
scholar  acquires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  scale,  by  regular  degrees,  by 

intervals  small  and  large,  by  chromatic  as  well  as  by  diatonic 
f       progression,  and  by  all  the  varities   of  melodic  and  harmonic 

effect  of  which  it  is  susceptible,  will  his  succeeding  study  be 
made  satisfactory  and  available.  Multiply  this  knowledge  of  the  resources 
of  one  scale  within  the  compass  of  one  octave  by  twelve,  the  number  of 
independent  key-notes  included  within  the  limits  of  the  chromatic  scale, 
and  thereby  are  obtained  the  changes  of  progression  possible  in  all  the 
twelve  keys,  in  the  circle  of  harmony,  through  the  transposition  of  the 
key-note.  Now  this  may  seem  complicated  to  the  uninitiated;  but  it  is 
quite  clear  to  all  who  have  mastered  the  changes  obtainable  within  the 
compass  of  one  octave,  and  afterward  have  learned  the  rule  of  transposi- 
tion to  the  succeeding  eleven  keys.  Thia,  indeed,  is  the  first  direct  business 
of  the  faithful  musical  instructor  and  his  pupils.  There  is  no  escape  from 
traveling  this  well-known  and  well-beaten  road,  if  accuracy  and  a  full 
comprehension  of  the  groundwork  of  music  be  really  desired.  In  schools 
where  the  very  tender  age  of  the  pupils  hardly  admits  of  any  extended 
coiirse  of  vocal  musical  instruction,  it  is  now  positively  ascertained  that 

the  association  of  the  sounds  of  the  major  scale  with  the  nu- 
JSiumerals.  j^-^gj-j^jg  i^  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  is  of  direct  and  permanent  use. 
Practicing  fragments  of  the  major  scale,  ascending  and  descending,  by  reg- 
ular degrees  and  in  wider  intervals,  with  frequent  recurrence  of  the  key- 
note 1  or  8,  and  unisonant  passages,  has  the  effect  of  locating  the  sounds 
of  the  scale  in  their  exact  order,  and  immediately  secures  the  attention 
and  the  active  participation  of  the  pupils,  because  the  order  of  the  nu- 
merals is  already  familiar  to  them;  and,  in  this  way,  each  sound  of  the 
scale  becomes  gradually  associated  with  its  corresponding  numerals.  If 
to  the  use  of  the  numerals  be  added  that  of  the  syllables.  Do,  lie,  Mi,  Fa, 
Sol,  La,  Si,  which  are  more  musical  in  themselves  than  the  numerals,  there 
are  obtained  three  indicators  of  the  different  sounds  of  the  scale;  namely, 

the  letters,  the  numerah,  and  the  syllables,  all  of  which  are  use- 
Leifers,  nu-  ^^^  ^^^  special  purposes:  the  letters, for  denoting  absolute  pitch  and 
syllables.   t^6  location  of  the  key-notes,  changeable  only  with  the  clefs;  the 

numerals,  for  drilling  in  the  plain  sounds  of  the  scale,  and  ulti- 
mately for  practical  use  in  the  study  of  harmony,  one  and  eigid  being  used 
as  key-notes  in  one  or  all  of  the  twelve  keys;  and  the  syllables,  for  so/-/ai«_7, 
used  according  to  the  Italian  method,  C  being  always  the  fixed  and  im- 
movable I)o.  It  is  at  this  point  that  this  Italian  method,  which  recognizes 
the  syllables  as  necessary  indicators  of  absolute  pitch,  and  at  the  same 


274  SINGING 

time  as  necessary  in  sol-faing  for  the  production  of  an  equable  and  yet 
varied  effect,  diffei-s  from  three  other  methods  which  are  in  extensive  use: 
(1)  from  that  of  the  Uermans,  who,  with  a  special  name  for 
,  /f^/  ?  every  plain  sound  of  the  scale,  and  for  every  augmented  or  depres- 
*  '  "  sed  interval  tliereof,  rely  chiefly  upon  vocalizing  witii  different 
vowels  to  secure  accuracy  in  all  chromatic  as  well  as  diatonic  progressions; 
(2)  from  that  of  the  United  States,  which  quite  generally,  but  not  entirely, 
employs  a  movable  Do  as  the  starting-point  or  key-note  of  the  major  scale, 
the  key-note  for  any  relative  minor  becoming  La;  and  (3)  from  that  of  the 
Rev.  J.  Curwen,  the  success  of  whose  method  in  England  has  been  quite 
remarkable,  —  a  method,  which  is  identical  with  that  so  extensively  prac- 
ticed in  the  United  States,  in  the  use  of  a  movable  Do,  but  which  substi- 
tutes the  syllable  Te  for  Si;  the  names  of  Mr.  Curwen's  syllables  being 
Doll,  Ea>/,  Me,  Fah,  So,  La,  Te.  'i'his  method  of  lettered  diwd  numeral 
abbreviations,  as  substitutes  for  the  staff,  clefs,  chromatic  signs,  bars,  meas- 
ures, and  time-table  of  the  present  musical  sign-language  will  be  more 
minutely  considered  further  on. 

To  return  to  the  two  methods  which  are  chiefly  employed  in  the  United 
States,  it  is,  really,  very  important  to  the  beginner  that  he  adhere  to  one 
method  until  it  is  thoroughly  acquired.     It  is  the  united  testimony  of  ex- 
perienced teachers  of  vocal  music  that  good  readers  are  educated 
Movable    ^y.  ]jqi\^  gf  these  methoils,  provided  the  teacher  begins,  continues, 
able  Do.    ^'^'-^  ^i^'^*'  the  work  of  strict  reading  by  adopting  only  one  method 
at  a  time.     The   pupil  may  afterward  become  acquainted  with 
all  other  methods,  and  with  advantage;  since  subsequent  experience  will 
enable  him  to  test  the  merits  of  the  method  which  he  most  thoroughly 
understands,  and  which  he  can  make  most  elfective.    To  attenqit  to  teach, 
or  to  learn,  both  methods  at  the  same-time,  produces  a  confusion  of  asso- 
ciations, and  a  consequent  bewilderment,  which  should  be  avoided.     It  has 
been  the  experience  of  the  writer  to  be  required  to  teach  contemporaneously 
according  to  both  of  these  methods;  and,  while  it  nmst  be  admitted  that 
the  method  which  retains  the  immovable  Do  has  a  unity  and  consistency 
which  demand  time  for  their  thorough  appreciation  and  practical  use,  it  is 
easier,  in  the  first  stages  of  instruction,  to  change  the  Do  with  each  suc- 
cessive key-note  of  the  entire  twelve.     By  the  former  method.  Do  is  inva- 
riably associated  with  a  certain  letter  and  a  certain  line  or  space;  by  the 
latter,  Do  becomes  the  key-note,  or  numeral  otie  or  ei'jht,  of  every  one  of 
the  major  scales.     One  or  the  other  of  these  ways  of  using  the 
teaf'        syllables  being  accepted,  the  natural  and  ordinary  divisions  of 
elementary  vocal  teaching  into  those  of  tioie,  time,  and  expression 
present  themselves;  tu)ie,  or  melodti,  addressing  itself  more  directly  to  the 
boul  than  time  or  rhythm,  is  certainly  first  in  order  in  the  musical  education 
of  the  young.     By  connnon  consent,  the  major  scale,  in  great  variety,  is 
now  practiced  with  numerals  and  with  .syllables  in  the  primary  departments 
of  schools,  as  a  preparation  for  the  presentation  of  the  staff,  clefs,  notes,  etc., 
at  a  later  period.     It  is  a  matter  of  no  consequence  whether  the  scale  be 
based  upon  one  particular  line  or  space  in  ])reference  to  another,  if  the 
movable  Do  be  used;  but  if  it  be  the  teacher's  design  to  employ  the  Italian 
method,  with  its  Do  inunovably  fixed  upon  middle  C,  it  is  conducive  to  a 
clearer  understanding  of  the  subject  of  the  transposition  of  the  key-note  to 


SINGING  275 

start  from  this  point.  If  another  letter  be  selected  as  the  base  of  the  scale 
in  the  earlier  lessons,  it  is  necessary  to  return  to  middle  C  when  the  subject 
of  transposition  is  introduced,  and  the  ordinary  rules  for  changing  the  place 
of  the  key-note  by  help  of  the  sharps  and  flats,  are  fully  explained.  After 
some  familiarity  with  the  sounds  of  the  major  scale  is  acquired,  a  division 
of  the  class  should  be  made,  whereby  singing  in  two  parts  can  be  attempted. 
This  phase  of  elementary  vocal  instruction  may  be  postponed,  in  teaching 
children,  until  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  diatonic  intervals  of  the 
major  scale  has  been  made  familiar  to  them.  With  adults,  however,  the 
natural  division  of  the  class  of  mixed  voices  arising  from  the  selection  of 
the  soprano,  alto,  tenor,  and  base  voices,  each  to  sing  in  a  compact  body, 
and  in  a  separate  location,  is  obviously  necessary  as  a  measure  of  interest 
and  advantage  to  all  four  of  these  parties,  after  the  quality  of  tone  and 
compass  of  each  voice  have  been  ascertained.  Beating  time  should  be 
introduced  and  rigidly  enforced  as  soon  as  the  staff  and  its  division 
into  measures  by  bars  have  been  explained,  especially  in  the  simpler 
forms  of  twofold,  threefold,  and  fourfold  measure.  Ihe  department  of 
expression,  with  its  more  apparent  varieties  of/,  p,  mf,  legato,  staccato, 
-■ ;  and  ." -,  may  accompany  the  performance  of  the  simplest  ex- 
ercises, and  grow  with  the  growth  and  strengthen  with  the  strength  of  the 
pupil  as  he  advances  toward  the  execution  of  more  elaborate  examples 
in  melody,  rhythm,  and  liarmony.  They  who  clog  the  wheels  of  musical 
progress  with  dull  and  incompetent  ears  must  gradually  disappear.  This 
is  a  rule  without  exception. 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  success  of  the  Eev.  J.  Curwen's  Tonic- 
Sol-Fa  system  in  England,  of  which  Miss  Sarah  A.  Glover,  with  her  so- 
.  called  teti-acfiordal  method,  was  the  forerunner.     It  is  claimed 

Fa^svstem  *^^*  ^^  ^^  better  suited  for  vocal  practice  than  the  ordinary 
'  signs,  and  many  of  Mr.  Curwen's  disciples  consider  it  available 
for  the  presentation  of  every  possible  variety  of  music,  instrumental  as 
well  as  vocal.  The  syllables  Doh,  Bay.  Me,  Fah,  Soh,  Lah,  Te,  are 
pronounced  as  they  are  spelt,  Te  being  substituted  for  Si,  to  avoid  confusion 
with  So  when  only  the  initial  letter  is  used,  as  in  the  printed  music 
the  initial  only  is  employed.  To  indicate  the  higher  or  lower  octaves, 
figures  are  placed  by  the  sides  of  the  letters  which  stand  for  notes,  as  d\ 
d'-,  vi^,  and  So,  M2,  do.  The  tune  America  is  presented  thus:  |  d  d  r  ti 
d  r  m  mf  m  r  d  r  d  ti,  etc.  Different  key-notes  are  announced  by  letter 
at  the  beginning,  as  key  G,  key  A,  etc.  The  key-note  of  the  relative 
minor  is  always  LaJi.  Changes  of  key  are  effected  by  what  are  called 
bridge  tones.  The  note,  or  rather  the  letter  indicating  a  certain  sound, 
is  placed  side  by  side  with  the  letter  indicating  the  pitch  of  the  letter  in 
the  key  approached,  and  pupils  are  taught  to  think  and  sing  the  sound 
of  the  fli-st  note  or  letter  and  to  call  it  by  the  name  of  the  second.  Thus 
drmfsdtd  would  show  a  modulation  to  the  key  of  G.  Tonic-Sol- 
Faists  consider  that  this  affords  an  easier  mode  of  making  modulations'" 
and  transitions  than  the  older  system.  The  chromatic  scale  is  named  by 
adding  the  vowel  e  to  the  initial  of  sharped  notes,  and  a  (aw)  to  flatted 
notes.  Thus  de,  re,  fe,  se,  are  respectively  d,  r,  f,  s  sharp;  and  7na 
(maw) ,  la,  ta,  are  m,  I,  t  flat.  The  sharp  or  augmented  sixth  of  the  minor 
scale  is  called  bah,  to  distinguish  it  from  fe,  the  sharp  or  augmented 


27  G  SIXGIXG 

fourth  of  the  major  scale.    Time  and  accent  are  indicated  by  measure- 
ment across  the  page,  thus: 

I  :  1  :  I  :  I  :  I 

the  space  between  one  sign  and  the  next  representing  the  beat;  the  line 
showing  the  stronger  accent,  and  the  colon  the  weaker.  Short  divisions  are 
indicated  on  halving  the  measure  by  one  dot  |  .  :  and  commas  are  used 
to  divide  the  measure  into  quarters,  and  other  divisions  are  similarly  shown. 
The  method  cannot  easily  be  understood  without  reference  to  the  Tunic- 
Sol-Fa  arrangement,  i.  e.,  the  distinctive  plan  of  teaching  the  musical  facts 
indicated  by  the  lettered  notation.  It  is  the  result  of  laborious  inquiry 
and  experience  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Curwen  and  his  fellow  laborers.  Great 
importance  is  attached  to  the  doctrine  of  what  is  called  menial  effect,  but 
which  has  been  previously  named  more  properly  emotional  effect,  by  which 
is  meant  a  certain  coloring  or  impression  produced  by  each  sound  of  the 
scale  when  sung  slowly.  Thus  doh  is  considered  firm;  te,  sharp  and  piercing; 
lah,  sorrowful;  /ah,  gloomy;  soh,  bright  and  clear,  etc.  Teaching  by  pat- 
tern is  also  required;  the  scale  is  taught  in  the  following  order:  (1)  the 
notes  of  the  tonic  common  chord  d,  m,  s,  or  dull,  me^  soh,  and  their  repli- 
cates; (2)  the  notes  of  the  dominant  common  chord  s,  t,  r,  or  so,  ie,  rai/: 
(3)  the  common  chord  of  the  subdominant/,  /,  d,  or /ah,  lah,  doh,  —  which 
are  simply  the  fundamental  harmonies  of  the  scale,  embracing 
Modulator,  ^jj  jj.g  gQmj^g^  ^nd  giving  birth  to  the  name  of  the  system, 
Tonic-Sol-Fa.  The  backbone  of  the  system,  however,  is  the  Modulator, 
without  a  proper  use  of  which  the  method  cannot  be  taught. 
r'  s  d  V 

t  —  m  —         1     —     r-"-  s 

d^  f 

t  m  1  =  r'  —        s  d'  f 


d 

ti 

li 


r 

s 

— 

DO  Li  I 

TE 

d 

f 

ta 

la 

ti 

m 

— 

LAII 

la             se 

li 

r 

— 

SOH 

ba            fe 

Sl 

d 



FAH 

ti 

— 

^lE 

f 

ma              re 

nil 

li 

RAY 

1-1 

Sl 

DUii 
ti 

di 

fi 

t2 

m 

— 

li 

h 

r 

— 

Sl 

S2 

di 



f 

t2 

— 

mi 

—      f 


t  m 


d 

f 

tl 

m 

li 

ll 

r 

Sl 

Sl 

d 

f 

f 

t, 

m 

m 

ll 

Tl 

ri 

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di 

di 

fi 

to 

t2 

nil 

12 

SOCIAL  ECONOMY  277 

This  Modulator  is  a  map  of  the  musical  sounds  to  be  read  in  an  ascend- 
ing order,  showing  the  scale,  its  minor,  its  chromatics,  and  its  more  closely 
related  keys  or  scales.  By  familiarity  in  the  use  of  this  chart,  the  upward 
and  downward  motion  of  the  notes  all  on  one  level,  is  gradually  learned  by 
the  pupil.  Syllables  are  used  to  show  the  length  of  the  notes  according  to 
the  French  Cheve  system.  So  taa  is  the  name  of  one  beat,  taa-tai  of  a 
half-beat,  and  ia-fa-te-fe  of  quarter  beats.  Continuations  of  any  kind  are 
met  by  dropping  the  consonant.  Sol-Faists  consider  that  the  more  intricate 
and  refined  of  divided  beats  can  be  sooner  learned  in  this  way  than  in  any 
other.  But  this  Tonic-Sol-Fa-mQi\\odL,  more  than  any  other, recpires  the 
living  teacher  to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  its  signs;  and  it  follows,  of  course, 
that  the  teacher  of  any  particular  method  of  imparting  musical  instruction 
will  best  succeed  with  that  which  he  most  thoroughly  understands. 

SOCIAL  ECONOMY.  The  place  actually  held  by  the  science  of 
social  or  political  economy,  in  modern  education,  presents  a  strange  con- 
.  trast  with  that  which  its  importance  demands.  If  the  object  of 
edwcdion  education  is  to  fit  the  young  to  become  self-supporting  citizens 
in  a  progressive  society,  conducing  at  once  to  the  happiness  of 
all,  while  securing  their  own,  then  must  the  science  whose  special  function 
is  the  elucidation  of  the  conditions  of  mans  well-being  in  society,  rightfully 
claim  a  foremost  place  in  every  school  curriculum.  It  is,  nevertheless,  to 
be  noted  that,  up  to  the  present  time,  instruction  in  this  science  has  been 
limited  to  the  few  who  attend  colleges  and  universities,  and  to  the  pupils 
of  a  small  number  of  schools,  of  which  further  mention  will  be  made  in 
the  course  of  this  article.  A  part  of  the  difficulty  popularly  experienced 
in  appreciating  the  proper  position  of  this  subject  in  the  course  of  sttidy 
appropriate  to  youth,  is  probably  to  be  ascribed  to  the  name,  or  rather  to 
the  different  names  which  have,  from  time  to  time,  been  given  to  the 
science.  The  most  appropriate  term,  of  the  many  which  have  been  sug- 
gested, will  be  found,  on  examination,  to  be  that  under  which  the  subject 
is  here  treated,  —  that  is,  the  science  which  treats  of  the  manner  in  which 
are  regulated  the  affairs  that  relate  to  man  in  society,  a  meaning  fully 
suggested  by  the  etymology  of  the  words.  Nevertheless,  this  term,  as 
well  as  the  allied  ivdme  political  economy,  is  apt  to  suggest  to  the  unpre- 
pared mind  a  science  dealing  with  a  very  different  set  of  ideas  from  those 
of  which  it  treats. 

The  dissatisfaction  which  has  thus  arisen  with  the  name  social  economy 
has  led  to  the  attempt  to  adopt  various  other  forms  of  expression  to 
designate  the  science,  of  which  attempts  the  happiest  perhaps 
Desig-      j^^g  \)qq^  i\^q  proposal  to  call  it  the  ''science  which  teaches  the 
conditions  of  human  well-being".   But  this  title  is  not  without 
objection.     In  the  first  place,  it  is  wanting  in  that  terseness  which  is  a 
main  requirement  in  nomenclature;  and,  secondly,  it  is  wanting  in  pre- 
cision.    This  expression  would  logically  include  many  other  sciences;  as, 
for  instance,  hygiene,  a  due  regard  to  the   laws  of  which  is  assuredly  a 
condition  of  human  well-being.     If  the  science  had  to  do  solely  with  the 
production  and  distribution  of  wealth,  the  term  originally  employed  by 
Adam  Smith,  the  father  of  the  science,  namely,  the  icealth  of  nations, 
would  be  specially  appropriate;  but,  even  this  is  inadequate;  for,  although 
the  laws  of  the  production  and  distribution  of  wealth  influence  iu  a  matO' 


278  SOCIAL  ECONOMY 

rial  degree  the  conditions  of  human  well-being,  the  science  which  we  have 
called  social  economy  includes  also  most  of  the  moral  elements  that  eater 
into  the  economy  of  society.  The  diversity  of  names  that,  from  time  to 
time,  have  been  suggested,  has,  not  unnaturally,  given  rise  to  the  idea  that 
there  must  be  something  especially  abstruse  in  a  science  the  professors  of 
which  have  been  unable  to  agree  even  upon  the  name  by  which  it  should 
be  known.  The  difficulty  probably  arises  from  the  modern  use  of  the 
term  economy,  which  has,  to  some  extent,  lost  its  original  and  etymological 
signification.  Another  cause  of  the  misapprehension  of  the  proper  place 
of  social  economy  in  education,  arises  from  the  intimate  relations  into 
which  every  person  unavoidably  enters  with  the  subjects  it  elucidates,  at 
nearly  every  instant  of  his  industrial  life;  so  that  all  persons  are  unavoid- 
ably possessed  of  some  notions  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats.  Now, 
as  there  is  an  infinite  niimber  of  modes  of  error  and  only  one  of  truth,  it 
is  only  by  starting  rightly,  and  proceeding,  systematically  or  scientifically, 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  that  error  can  be  avoided;  hence,  the 
notions  taken  up  in  the  course  of  practical  life  are,  in  the  ab- 
DifflcuUy.  ggjjgg  Qf  systematic  study,  generally  erroneous.  But  it  is  usually 
the  most  ignorant  who  wrangle  and  dictate  with  the  loudest  assumption  of 
knowledge;  and,  hence,  people  are  led  to  suppose  that  there  is  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion  on  economic  truths  among  the  students  of  the  science,  and 
that,  therefore,  the  subject  must  be  too  xlitficult  to  be  underetood  by  chil- 
dren. It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that,  as  far  as  regards  the  elements  of  the 
science,  there  is  no  more  difference  of  opinion  among  those  who  have 
given  systematic  study  to  it,  than  there  is  among  the  students  of 
mathematics  upon  the  elementary  principles  of  geometry.  Another  and 
more  serious  obstacle  to  the  introduction  of  social  economy,  as  a  subject  of 
instruction  for  the  young,  is  the  following.  Owing  to  the  extremely 
complex  nature  of  human  society,  it  is  impossible  to  take  all  of  its  factors 
into  account  when  investigating  its  elementary  principles.  But  it  is  also 
true  that  the  geometrician  disi'egards  the  breadtli  of  the  line,  and  the 
mechanician  the  weight  of  the  mechanical  powers,  when  investigating  the 
laws  of  magnitude  in  space,  or  the  relations  of  forces;  but  as  soon  as  the 
geometrician  or  the  mathematician  begins  to  apply  the  pi-inciples  of  his 
particular  .science  to  practical  engineering,  these  discarded  factors  form 
data  in  his  problems;  and  their  elTects  are  estimated  by  means  of  the  very 
laws  which  were  established  while  disregarding  their  existence.  So  with 
the  laws  of  man  in  society.  The  laws  of  the  production  and  distribution 
of  wealth  were  investigated  by  rigorously  excluding  tlie  sympathetic  side 
of  man's  nature  and  looking  upon  him  as  purely  a  self-seeking  being;  but 
the  princii)les  of  social  economy  can  only  be  undei'stood  by  regaixling  him 
from  both  points  of  view.  All  educators  have  agreed  that  the  earlier 
years  of  youth  must  be  directed  to  concrete,  before  proceeding  to  ab- 
stract, studies — -to  observation  rather  than  to  causation.  While,  sj^eaking 
generally,  tliis  rule  is  sound,  it  is  not  to  be  understood  as  requiring  the 
exclusion  of  the  reasoning  process  from  even  infant  minds;  but,  because  the 
reasoning  faculties  are  comparatively  dormant  in  early  youth,  knowledge 
.«hould  be  obtained  through  observation  (as  for  instance  in  natural  hi.story) ; 
and  from  the  facts  thus  obtained  the  child  should  be  trained  to  reason 
lugicaUy.     Now,  for  this  purpose,  social  economy  presents  many  advan- 


SOCIAL  ECONOMY  279 

tagea,  and  this  hardly  less  as  a  mental  discipline  than  for  the  knowledge  it 
imparts.     But  the  teaching  of  science  to  the  very  young  should  always  be 

in  connection  with  facts  or  subjects  presented  to  the  senses. 

Advan-     ^q^  instance,  suppose  a  lesson  is  to  be  given  upon  bread  to 

'^^sludy.  '^  children  8  or  9  years  of  age.    After  the  children  have  observed 

those  properties  which  are  directly  cognizable  to  the  senses,  the 
judicious  teacher  will  proceed  to  the  more  elementary  of  those  facts 
relating  to  it  which  physics,  chemistry,  and  physiology  have  made  known 
to  us,  and  will  not  shrink  from  gradually  introducing  the  pupils,  not- 
withstanding their  youth,  to  the  terms  used  by  men  of  science  in  speaking 
of  those  facts.  Instruction  of  this  kind  has,  for  a  long  while,  been  given 
by  the  best  teachers,  in  what  are  termed  object  lessons;  and  they  have  now 

only  to  add  the  facts  relating  to  bread  which  are  made  known 

Ta'^g'ht^y  iQ  us  by  the  science  of  social  economy  to  complete  their  course. 

lessons.     They  will  find  it  far  easier  to  adopt  this  course  with  the  social 

bearings  of  objects  than  with  those  which  relate  to  physics, 
chemistry,  or  physiology,  because  many  of  the  social  facts  will  have  been 
spontaneously  and  unavoidably  noticed  by  the  children  themselves;  and 
when  once  they  perceive  that  what  goes  on  around  them  at  home,  in  the 
workshop,  and  in  the  store,  has  a  scientific  value  and  importance,  and  that 
an  observation  of  surrounding  facts  and  events  can  be  used  in  school  work, 
and  have  a  fitting  place  found  for  it,  as  a  help  to  further  knowledge, 
their  observation  will  be  suddenly  and  wonderfully  awakened,  and  fresh 
facts  and  events  will  be  poured  upon  the  teacher  by  the  children  them- 
selves. By  this  method,  long  before  children  have  passed  out  of  the  pri- 
mary grades,  they  may  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  not  only  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  production  of  wealth,  but  morals  also,  as  well  as  many 
of  the  consequences  of  the  division  of  labor,  and  otlier  matters  connected 
with  the  interchange  of  commodities.  At  an  age  even  earlier  than  that 
at  which  it  is  now  deemed  proper  to  commence  the  study  of  geometry, 
that  is  to  say,  11  or  12  years,  social  economy  may  be  tauL^ht  as  a  special 
subject;  but  the  opportunities  afforded  by  object  lessons,  of  observing  the 
social  aspects  of  the  objects  under  consideration  should  always  be  made 

available.  In  teaching  social  economy,  as  a  special  branch,  to 
A  special  gci^^iars  of  from  11  to  12  years  of  age,  the  subject  should,  as  far 
ranc  i.  ^^  poggiyg^  be  introduced  in  a  manner  analogous  to  that  of 
object  teaching.  Attention  should  be  called  to  the  comforts  enjoyed  by 
the  children,  and  by  people  in  general,  in  the  country  in  which  they  live, 
—  things  to  which  they  have  perhaps  become  so  accustomed  that  they 
have  given  no  thought  to  the  means  by  which  they  have  been  providecl  at 
the  time  and  place  at  which  they  are  needed  to  be  used  and  enjoyed.  With 
children  who  have  not  before  received  any  instruction  in  the  science,  some 
simple  object  of  their  daily  use  should  be  noticed,  and  its  history  exam- 
ined, from  the  first  preparation  for  the  production  of  the  raw  material  of 
which  it  is  mainly  composed,  down  to  its  distribution  in  the  form  iii  which 
it  is  required  to  be  ready  for  their  consumption.  Such  an  examination 
will  bring  vividly  before  the  minds  of  the  pupils  the  fact  that  nearly  all 
Topics  for  *b^  necessaries  and  comforts  of  life  are  produced  by  labor;  and 
the  course  then  the  name  loealth,  by  which  these  products  of  labor  are  to 
of  study,    be  thenceforth   denoted,   may  be  given   to  them.     Lidusiry^ 


280  SOCIAL  ECONOMY 

economy^  knoxdedge,  and  skill  will  next  be  evolved  as  necessary  to 
individual  as  well  as  general  well-being;  and  the  division  of  labor  will 
be  examined,  with  its  resulting  enormous  increase  in  the  productive- 
ness of  labor.  The  opportunity  should  then  be  taken  to  exhibit  the 
groundlessness  of  prevailing  i:)rejudices  in  regard  to  the  relative  honor 
to  bo  attached  to  one  class  of  labor  over  another,  and  to  point  out  that 
those  by  whom  household  labors  are  performed  are  as  much  engaged  in 
the  business  of  production  as  other  laborers.  "I'he  pupils  will  now  be  ready 
to  observe  with  understanding  the  simpler  phenomena  of  interchange;  and 
then  the  paramount  importance  of  honesty,  truthfulness,  and  thorough 
trustworthiness  on  the  part  of  all  will  be  evolved  and  made  apparent. 
A\'hile  carefully  avoiding  all  appearance  of  dogmatism,  the  teacher  can 
hardly  devote  too  much  time  to  multiplying  illustrations,  and  reviewing  the 
investigations  of  the  pupils,  upon  this  head.  The  various  forms  of  un- 
trustwcn-thiness,  and  the  consequence  thereof,  should  be  made  very  clear, 
nor  should  the  subject  be  left  until  the  pupils  have  arrived  at  a  hearty 
detestation,  not  only  of  unsuccessful,  but  still  more  of  successful,  dis- 
honesty. The  natural  laws  regulating  the  relations  of  emplojier  and  ein- 
jjloyeU  will  next  be  studied;  and,  either  now  or  at  a  later  period,  the 
rules  of  trades-unions,  and  the  effects  of  strikes  and  of  combinations, 
should  be  closely  examined;  nor  should  the  subject  of  liKiges  be  left  until 
the  pupils  see  clearly,  that  the  wages  which  they,  as  sellers  of  their  labor, 
are  destined  to  earn,  will  depend  almost  exclusively  on  the  productiveness 
of  their  labor,  and  that  all  those  rules  of  trades-unions  etc.  which  tend  to 
diminish  the  productiveness  of  labor,  of  necessity,  lower  also  the  wages  of 
labor.  'I'he  laws  determining  the  administration  of  capital  will  next  en- 
gage their  attention;  the  idea  of  j)rojU  will  be  evolved,  and  its  nature 
determined  with  precision;  the  mischievous  results  of  comlnnations 
among  capitalists,  both  to  themselves  and  to  the  community,  will  be  in- 
vestigated, until  it  becomes  a])parent  that  the  profit  of  the  capitalist  is 
the  reward  paid  him  by  society  for  the  services  he  has  rendered,  of  which 
services  it  forms  also,  in  most  cases,  an  accurate  measure.  —  Properti/  i/t 
land  will  next  chiim  attention,  the  justification  for  its  adoption,  as  well  as 
its  just  limitations,  being  ascertained,  and  the  principle  of /-cii;  determined. 
As  the  next  step  in  the  course  of  study,  the  idea  of  exchangeableness, 
and  the  name  value,  will  be  evolved.  'J'he  laws  which  regulate  value 
will  then  be  investigated,  and  the  necessity  of  precision,  alike  in  ideas  and 
the  use  of  words,  will  be  again  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  pupils, 
and  forcibly  illustrated  by  as  many  examples  as  possible.  It  will  now  be 
time  to  examine  into  some  of  the  means  which  have  been  adopted  to  facili- 
tate interchange,  among  which  monerj  will  be  seen  to  hold  a  prominent 
jjlace;  the  reasons  for  selecting  gold  or  silver  for  money  will  be  examined; 
the  impo.ssibility  of  fixing  the.  relative  values  of  the  two  metals,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  want  of  wisdom  shown  in  enacting  laws  making  both 
metals  a  standard  of  value  for  the  same  contract,  will  be  readily  perceived; 
nor  will  it  be  difficult  for  the  pui)ils  to  di-scern  the  only  proper  functions 
to  be  fulfilled  by  a  mint.  The  cau-ses  of  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  money 
will  be  next  investigated,  and  the  phenomena  of  price  and  its  fluctuations 
obs'jrved.  The  use  and  functions  of  credit  will  now  be  inquired  into,  and 
the  unhappy  consequences  of  its  abuse  traced  to  their  soiu'cc.     Xow,or  at 


SPANISH  LANGUAGE  281 

a  later  peiiod  iu  the  course,  the  causes  of  the  so-called  ''  tightness  in  the 
money  market",  of  business  derangements,  commercial  crises,  and  of 
panics,  will  be  rigidly  investigated  and  their  only  remedy  discerned, 
namely,  greater  trustworthiness  and  honesty,  to  be  secured  by  the  im- 
proved teaching  and  training  of  youth.  'J'he  policy  of  laws  for  the  recov- 
ery of  debts  may  now  be  profitably  inquired  into,  as  also  the  function 
which,  at  best,  governments  may  hope  to  perform  in  the  economy  of  so- 
ciety. Bills  of  exchange,  rates  of  excliwige,  the  p«?'  of  exchange  be- 
tween distant  countries,  rates  of  interest,  banAs  and  banking,  may  all 
now,  in  turn,  be  discussed,  and  the  w^ant  of  wisdom  shown  by  legislatures 
in  the  enactment  of  usury  laws,  and  of  laws  which  attempt  to  control  or 
regulate  banting,  may  be  made  apparent.  Paper  money,  and  the  promise 
made  by  the  issuci's  thereof,  the  dishonesty  evinced  iu  breaking  the  prom- 
ise thus  made,  and  the  duty  incumbent  upon  those  who  have  either  dis- 
honestly or  ignorantly  broken  such  promises,  should  be  dwelt  upon,  and 
illustrated  by  examples  drawn  from  history.  Foreign  commerce  may 
next  be  illustrated,  its  origin  and  the  cause  of  its  existence  observed,  and 
the  want  of  wisdom  shown  by  those  legislatures  which  have  attempted 
improperly  to  interfere  with  it.- — The  proper  mode  of  raising  revenue, 
to  be  deduced  in  great  part  from  the  truths  discovered  when  consider- 
ing the  phenomena  of  rent  and  its  progressive  increase,  will  next  be  in- 
vestigated; and  the  wisest  methods  of  expenditure,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate, may  then  be  discussed.  With  the  consideration  of  all  these  ques- 
tions, and  mainly  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  here  sketched,  the  school 
course  of  study  in  social  economy  may  be  closed.  Not,  however,  without 
warning  the  pupil  that  he  has,  by  no  means,  mastered  all  the  truths  of  the 
science,  but  that,  if  he  has  thoroughly  assimilated  the  lessons  he  has  re- 
ceived, they  will  suffice  to  direct  his  path  in  industrial  life.  The  course 
as  sketched  in  these  pages  should  occupy  from  two  to  four  years  of  the 
school  curriculum,  —  two  years,  if  the  knowledge  to  be  acquired  is  to  be 
learned  from  books;  but  about  four  years,  if  the  Socratic  method  be 
adopted  by  the  teacher.  Another  method  of  iustruction,  and  one  which, 
like  that  already  indicated,  has  been  successfully  practiced,  is 
Socratic  ^y^^  division  of  the  science  into  progressive  problems,  demonstrat- 
' "  ing  these  either  on  the  Socratic  plan  or  by  a  deductive  process, 
as  in  tile  study  of  geometry.  The  former  of  these  two  plans  is  that  chiefly 
followed  in  the  admirable  Birckbeck  schools  of  Loudon,  which  were  found- 
ed and  endowed  by  William  Ellis,  of  that  city,  for  the  special  purpose 
of  introducing  the  science  of  social  economy  as  a  branch  of  school  teach- 
ing, especially  for  the  children  of  mechanics  and  laborers.  Since  the  year 
1848,  this  instruction  has  been  continued  in  these  schools,  and  their 
example  has,  at  last,  been  followed  by  the  London  school  board.  —  For 
educational  literature  of  this  subject,  see  Ci/clopcedia  of  Education,  and 
hst  of  educational  works  in  the  Appendix  of  this  work. 

SPANISH  LANGUAGE,  The  Spanish  language  has  but  little 
claim  to  a  place  in  the  regular  course  of  instniction,  in  schools  and  col- 
leges, in  comparison  witli  the  French  and  German  languages.  As  Span- 
ish, however,  is  not  only  the  language  of  one  of  the  nations  of  Europe, 
but  is  spoken  in  all  the  countries  of  South  America,  except  Brazil;  and 
also   in    Central  America,    Mexico,    and  even  in    some  parts   of    the 


282  SUPERIOR   INSTRUCTION  —  SUPERVISION 

United  States,  and  is  tlius  the  vernacular  language  of  at  least  GO 
millions  of  people,  practical  considerations  commend  its  study  to  thou- 
sands of  persons,  students  and  others,  in  preference  to  either  German 
or  French.  Independently  of  this  consideration,  the  Spanish  language, 
as  a  school  accomplishment,  is  not  without  attractions.  It  ranks,  indeed, 
among  the  most  euphonious  of  modern  languages,  being  even  preferred, 
by  some  linguists,  to  the  Italian;  and  its  literature  contains  many  works 
of  enduring  interest  and  value.  While  the  Spanish  language  presents  a 
considerably  larger  number  of  non-Latin  elements  than  either  French  or 
Italian,  it  deviates  but  little  from  these  two  sister  languages  in  its  structure 
and  grammar.  In  the  pronunciation  of  the  vowels,  it  entirely  agrees  with 
the  Italian.  The  two  double  consonants  II  and  h  are  peculiar  to  the  Span- 
ish, and  of  the  English  consonant  sounds,  2  (as  in  zone)  is  entirely  want- 
ing. Though  substantives  have  only  two  genders,  masculine  and  feminine, 
the  article  has  three,  el,  la  and,  lo;  the  last,  which  is  the  neuter  form,  being 
used  to  change  adjectives  into  substantives  {lo  hiieno,  that  which  is  good). 
Tlie  Spanish  is  richer  than  either  French  or  Italian  in  augmentatives  and 
diminutives;  and  the  reflexive  form  of  the  verb  is  used  more  extensively, 
perhaps,  than  in  any  other  language  of  Europe.  The  subjunctive  has  two 
more  tenses  than  the  Italian  or  French  {amare,  future;  amara,  second  con- 
ditional). In  words  derived  from  Latin,  the  e  and  0  of  the  accented  peuul- 
tima  have  frequently  been  developed  into  ie  and  we,  a  change  which  in  this 
class  of  words,  gives  to  the  Spanish  an  undoubted  superiority  in  euphony 
(Spanish  tiempo,fuerle;  French  teinps,  fort;  Ital.  /e»y>o,/o'/Ve).—  l'he  prop- 
er method  of  teaching  Spanish  does  not  differ  from  that  of  teaching  the 
French  language  (q.  v.).  A  few  lessons  in  comparative  etymology  will 
greatly  facilitate  the  study  of  this  as  of  every  language.  If,  for  instance, 
the  pupil  learns  that  such  combinations  as  cl,fl,X)l,  etc.  in  English  words 
of  Latin  origin  are  often  changed  into  II  (Iknnar,  clamor;  llama,  flame; 
/Amo, plain),  a  large  number  of  words  will,  at  once,  be  familiar  to  him. 

SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION,  a  term  used  to  denote  instruction  of 
the  biglicst  grade,  or  that  given  in  colleges  and  universities,  both  in  the 
academic  course,  oi'  in  special  or  post-gi-aduate  courses. 

SUPERVISION,  School,  constitutes  one  of  the  most  essential  ele- 
ments of  an  efficient  school  system.  The  supervision  which  is  necessarily 
given  by  the  principal  of  the  school  to  the  work  performed  by  his  assistants 
is  not  here  referred  to,  but  that  which  is  usually  assigned  to  a  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  whose  special  function  it  is  to  see  that  every  school 
under  his  jurisdiction  is  efficient  both  in  discipline  and  instruction.  As  a 
general  rule,  no  extensive  work  employing  a  large  number  of  ojoeratives, 
each  performing  certain  prescribed  duties,  which  contribute  toward  the 
accomplishment  of  a  general  result,  can  be  carried  on  efficiently  without 
constant  supervision.  School  supervision  is  needed  for  two  purposes: 
(1)  to  enforce  the  general  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by 
eed^d  ^^^^'^^  authorities;  and  (2)  to  see  that  tlie  proper  methods  of 
instruction  are  employed,  and  that  the  teaching  is  made  effective. 
To  attain  these  objects,  the  schools  must  be  both  inspecled  and  examined. 
By  inspection  the  superintendent  keeps  him.self  informed  in  regard  to  the 
discipline  of  the  school  and  the  methods  of  instruction  employed  by  the 
teachers;  by  formal  examinations  at  stated  periods,  he  is  enabled  to  as- 


SYMPATHY  283 

certain,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  actual  result  of  the  teaching,  that  is,  its 
effect  on  the  pupils'  minds,  both  as  to  imparting  information  and  training. 
Both  of  these  are  considered  indispensable.  "An  inspection",  as  defined 
by  Superintendent  Philbrick,  "is  a  visitation  for  the  purpose  of  obser- 
vation, of  oversight,  of  superintendence.  Its  aim  is  to  discover,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  the  tone  and  spirit  of  the  school,  the  conduct  and  applica- 
tion of  the  pupils,  the  management  and  methods  of  the  teacher,  and  the 
fitness  and  condition  of  the  premises.  Good  inspection  commends  excel- 
lences, gently  indicates  faults,  defects,  and  errors,  and  suggests  improve- 
ments as  occasion  requires.  *  *  *  An  examination  is  different  from  an  in- 
spection, both  in  its  aims  and  methods.  An  examination  is  a  thorough 
scrutiny  and  investigation  in  regard  to  certain  definitely  determined  mat- 
ters for  a  specific  purpose".  The  best  methods  of  teaching,  if  not  uni- 
formly and  diligently  employed,  Avill  not  impress  the  pupils'  minds;  and 
on  the  other  hand,  the  pupils  may  gain  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
prescribed  branches  of  study,  but  not  in  such  a  way  as  to  cultivate  proper 
habits  of  thought.  Regular  examinations,  besides  ascertaining  the  merits 
and  qualificati'ons  of  the  teachers,  aiford  a  wholesome  stimulus,  when  judi- 
ciously and  skillfully  conducted,  and  afford  a  definite  aim  toward  which 
their  efforts  may  be  directed.  On  the  other  hand,  if  attempted  by  in- 
competent and  indiscreet  persons,  supervision  of  this  and  every  other  kind 
may  do  much  harm.     The  qualities  necessary  for  a  good  examiner  are  well 

defined  by  Supt.  Philbrick:  "In  the  first  place,  he  should  be 
QuaUfica-  independent,  or,  to  speak  more  precisely,  he  should  not  be  de- 
^^°qood  "  pendent  upon  the  teaching  corps.  He  ought  to  have  had  ex- 
examiner.  perience  in  teaching;  and  if  he  has  had  experience  in  grades 

similar  to  those  in  which  he  examines,  so  much  the  better.  His 
mind  ought  to  be  liberalized  by  a  wide  range  of  educational  reading  and 
study.  He  ought  to  have  a  good  deal  of  practical  common  sense.  He 
should  be  mortT  inclined  to  look  on  the  bright  side  of  things  than  on  the 
dark  side.  He  should  look  sharper  foi'  merits  than  for  demerits.  He 
should  fear  only  two  things:  he  should  fear  to  do  injustice,  and  he  should 
fear  himself.  He  should  be  eminent  for  good  breeding,  as  a  guaranty  of 
respectful  treatment  from  teachers  and  pupils.  And  to  make  sure  of  the 
requisite  sympathy,  like  Burke's  lawgiver,  he  ought  to  have  a  heart  full  of 
sensibility.  In  one  word,  for  the  successful  exercise  of  this  delicate  and 
most  useful  function,  the  very  best  educators  are  demanded ".  The 
objection  has  sometimes  been  urged  against-  examinations  of  this  kind, 
that  they  encourage  cramming;  but  this  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  examinations  themselves.  —  See  Payxe,  School  Supervision 
(Gin.,  1875).      (See  also  Examixatioxs.) 

SYMPATHY,  an  instinctive  feeling  of  interest  in,  and  affection  for, 
others,  which  prompts  a  correspondence  of  emotions.  Persons  in  sympathy 
readily  discern  the  mental  states  of  one  another,  and  evince  by  their  actions 
that  they  suffer,  mentally,  the  same  distress,  and  feel  the  same  joy.  It  is 
difficult  to  ascertain  and  define  the  source  and  basis  of  this  sympathetic 
relationship;  but  personal  influence  greatly  depends  upon  it.  It  is  natural 
to  some  persons  to  be  in  sympathy  with  others;  they  seem  to  exert  a  kind 
of  positive  influence,  drawing  and  binding  all  around  them  to  themselves. 
Others,  on  the  contrary,  seem  to  be  negative  in  their  influence;  they  repel 


284  TEACHER  —  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE 

instead  of  attracting.  They  are  cold  and  indifferent  to  others;  or,  if  othcr- 
Avise,  unconsciously  show  that  their  apparent  interest  is  feigned,  not  felt, 
proceeding  from  a  sense  of  duty,  not  from  natural  warmth  of  feeling. 
'I'he  teacher,  above  all  others,  should  be  sympathetic,  because  so  nuich  of 
his  success  depends  upon  personal  inHueuce.  He  should  habitually  strive 
to  cultivate  this  quality,  feeling  assured  that  the  measure  of  his  professional 
skill  and  efficiency  is  the  degree  of  sympathetic  regard  with  which  he 
inspires  his  pupils.     (See  ANXirAXiiY,  and  Love.) 

TEACHER,  a  person  who  assists  another  in  learning,  that  is,  in  ac- 
quiring knowledge  or  practical  skill.  A  school-teacher's  office  is,  for  the 
most  part,  confined  to  aiding  the  pupil  in  acquiring  knowledge,  with  the 
twofold  object  of  (1)  mental  discipline,  and  (2j  imparting  valuable  infor- 
mation. "Which  of  these  is  to  be  considered  of  primary  importance  depends 
upon  the  grade  of  the  instruction  and  the  subject  taught.  Although  teach- 
ing is  only  a  part  of  education,  the  teacher  should  be  an  educator,  since  he 
is  required  to  perform  an  office  which  bears  an  important  relation  to  the 
general  development,  or  education,  of  the  child;  and,  consequently,  he 
should  clearly  understand  the  nature  of  that  relation.  In  other  words,  no 
person  can  be  merely  a  teacher;  he  must,  to  be  truly  efficient,  educate 
while  he  teaches.  Indeed,  he  cannot  but  do  so.  His  example,  and  his 
personal  influence  of  every  kind,  will  necessarily  educate  —  will  tend  to 
form,  permanently,  the  character  of  his  pupil,  either  for  good  or  evil.  I'his 
consideration  should  determine  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher,  which 
should  not  consist  merely  in  scholarship,  book  learning,  or  intellectual 
culture,  but  tiiat  assemblage  of  personal  (]ualities  and  acconqilishments 
(including  scholarship)  which  will  render  his  influence  in  every  respect 
effective  and  salutary.  The  recjuirements  of  a  successful  teacher,  inde- 
pendent of  intellectual  accomiilishmeuts  are  thus  summarized  in  a 
recently  published  work:  "(1)  'J'he  teacher  must  love  his  work.  ('J)  He 
must  understand,  and  sympathize  with, the  motives  which  govern  human- 
ity—  especially  children.  (.'3)  The  whole  scope  of  his  intercourse  with  his 
])upils  must  be  to  secure  tlieir  co-operation  and  thus  develop  self-govurn- 
nient.  (4)  He  must  plan  to  interest  his  pupils.  (5)  He  must  give  tliem 
constant  employment.  (G)  He  must  conduct  his  work  with  tlie  utmost 
system.  See  KELhOc.c,  School  Mdiiagtmeid  {S.Y.,  1880).  (See  Didao 
Tics,   Editatiox,  and   Instruction.) 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE,  the  name  given,  in  the  United  States, 
to  an  a.s.scnililane  of  tLarluTS  of  elementary  or  district  schools,  called  to- 
gether tenqwrarily  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  professional  instruction. 
Such  meetings  are  held  under  the  direction  of  the  school  authorities, 
usually  the  state,  coimty.  or  town  superintendent;  and  quite  often  there  is 
a  provision  of  law  requiring  the  teachers  enqtloyed  in  the  conunon  schools 
to  attend,  and  permitting  a  continuance  of  their  salaries  during  such 
attendance.  A  teachers'  institute  is  usually  conducted  by  an  experienced 
teacher,  having  special  skill  for  the  work.  This  requires  a  good  knowl- 
edge of  the  practice  and  theory  of  teaching,  especi;illy  as  ap])lied  to  the 
ordinary  branches  of  connnun-sehool  education;  it  also  needs  ability  as  a 
lecturer.  'J'eachers'  institutes  are  designed  to  serve  as  a  sulistitute  for,  or 
us  complementary  to,  normal  instruction;  and  as  such  they  constitute  a 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES  —  TEXT-BOOKS  285 

valuable  .igencyin  connection  with  a  system  of  comuion-scliool  instruction. 
—  See  Bates,  Method  of  Teachers'  histitutes  (N.  Y.);  and  Institute  Lec- 
tures (N.T.) ;  FowLE,  The  Teachers'  Institute  (X.Y.);  Phelps,  The  Teach- 
ers'  HancJ-Bnol;  (X.  Y.). 

TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES.  Schools  for  the  education  and 
training  of  teachers  are  called  teachers'  seminaries  in  Germany,  Russia, 
Finland,  Xorway,  Sweden,  Denn)ark,  and  the  German  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land; training  schools,  in  Austria  and  the  Netherlands;  j:>?-e/)ara/o?'y 
schools,  in  Hungary;  and  normal  schools,  in  France,  Great  Britain,  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Greece,  Roumania,  the  French  cantons  of  Switzerland, 
and  the  United  States.  In  Great  Britain,  the  name  training  college  is 
very  generally  used.      (See  Normal  School.) 

TEMPER,  the  disposition  or  constitution  of  the  mind,  in  relation 
particularly  to  the  affections  and  the  passions.  Good  temper  implies  a 
serenity  of  mind,  and  a  natural  or  habitual  cheerfulness,  which  is  not  easily 
disturbed.  It  is  opposed  to  peevishness  and  suUenness,  which  seem  to  be 
characteristic  of  certain  minds.  As  good  temper  predisposes  to  docility, 
so  ill-temper  is  directly  antagonistic  to  it;  hence,  the  educator  nuist  culti- 
vate the  former  in  the  mind  of  his  pupil,  and  strive  to  eradicate  the  latter. 
In  dealing  with  this  fault,  the  utmost  patience  is  requisite;  since  any  ex- 
hibition of  ill  temper  on  the  part  of  the  educator  will,  from  the  force  of 
example,  as  well  as  from  the  additional  irritation  caused  by  it,  aggravate 
the  difficulty,  and  foster  the  natural  failing  in  the  pupil's  mind  into  a 
confirmed  vic3.  Allowance  must  always  be  made  for  the  natural  peculiar- 
ities of  children;  siuce  these  cannot  be  immediately  or  forcibly  repressed, 
but  must,  by  careful  training,  be  brought  under  self-control,  which  is  one 
of  the  earliest  lessons  to  be  taught,  but  one  of  the  last  objects  attained  in 
education.  Discouragement  may  soinetimes  take  the  form  of  ill  temper; 
and,  in  such  a  case,  the  teacher  must  make  concessions,  and  give  special 
attention  to  remove  the  feeling  and  restore  confidence.  A  violent,  irascible, 
or  stubborn  temper  in  the  pupil  is  to  be  met  with  calmness  and  firmness 
ou  the  part  of  the  teacher;  and  very  often  the  marked  contrast  between  his 
manner  and  that  of  the  pupil  will  serve  to  recall  the  latter  to  himself,  and 
excite  in  his  mind  a  feeling  of  shame  at  his  haste  or  violence.  Nothing 
will  tend  so  strongly  as  this  to  cure  the  vice,  since  it  really  leads  the  child 
to  punish  himself  for  his  fault.  Ill  temper  that  takes  the  forni  of  obstinacy, 
is  the  most  difficult  to  deal  with;  and  it  is  this  that  I^ocke  reserves  as  the 
special  and  only  case  for  the  use  of  the  rod.  A  resort  to  this  should  not, 
however,  be  hastily  made,  and  will  scarcely  ever  be  needed,  if  the  circum- 
stances admit  of  persistent  discipline  of  another  kind  by  the  educator.  In 
school,  unfortunately,  this  is  not  always  the  case,  the  teacher  being  obliged 
promptly  to  choose  between  the  immediate  conquest  of  his  stubborn 
pupil,  or  the  disorganization  of  his  school.     (See  PrxismtENT.) 

TEXT-BOOKS,  for  educational  purposes,  are  books  designed  to  be 
used  by  pupils  in  connection  with  the  instruction  given  by  the  teacher. 
Their  purpose  is  threefold:  (1)  to  aid  the  teacher,  by  affording  to  the  pupil 
independent  sources  of  information  and  instruments  of  study;  (2)  to  aid 
the  pupil,  in  acquiring  habits  of  self-reliance  in  study;  and  (3)  to  enable 
the  pupil  to  learn  how  to  use  books,  as  a  means  of  self-culture.  These 
objects  dictate  the  mode  of  constructing  school  text-books;  and  should  all 


286  TOPICAL  METHOD  —  TJXIYEESITY 

be  carefully  kept  in  view  by  tlie  teacher  in  the  selection  of  books,  so  that 
they  may  be  suited  to  the  mental  status  and  grade  of  cidture  of  his  pupils 
in  regard  to  the  following  points:  (1)  language  and  style;  (2)  arrangement 
of  topics  and  general  treatment  of  the  subject,  and  (3)  adaptability  to  the 
time  and  general  opportunities  of  the  [lupil.  '  The  object  of  iising  text- 
books is  often  entirely  defeated  by  a  disregard  of  the  lirst  of  these  points. 
A  text-book  written  ina  style  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  pupil  is  not  only 
useless,  but  positively  injurious;  since  the  pupil  cither  becomes  disgusted 
with  the  study  and  neglects  it  altogether,  or  he  commits  to  memory  the 
language  of  the  book,  under  the  impression  that  he  is  acquiring  knowledge; 
and  thus  his  mental  habits  arc  seriously,  if  not  permanently,  vitiated.  - — 
The  following  cautions  should  be  particularly  observed  by  teachers  in  the 
use  of  text-books:  (1)  the  book  should  not  be  permitted  to  supersede  the 
teacher,  its  use  being  always  preceded,  accompanied,  and  supplemented  by 
oral  instruction;  (2)  it  slxnild  never  be  paramount,  in  the  jiupil's  mind,  to 
the  subject,  the  impression  being  constantly  inculcated  by  the  teacher  that 
it  is  tlie  subject  that  is  studied,  and  that  the  book  is  only  an  instrument 
of  the  study,  or  an  auxiliary  to  it;  (.S)  it  should  not  be  allowed  to  su- 
persede the  necessity  of  acquiring  knowledge,  as  far  as  possible,  by  per- 
.sonal  experience,  particularly  in  elementary  education.  In  advanced  in- 
struction, it  w'ill  always  be  found  that  those  will  use  text-books  most  ef- 
fectively who   have   acquired  the  most  knowledge  without  them.      (See 

OkAL  IxSTRrCTION.) 

TOPICAL  METHOD,     See  CATEriiKTiCAT.  ISIktiiod. 

TRAINING,  a  department  of  education,  in  which  the  chief  element 
is  exercise,  or  practice;  the  object  being  to  impart  practical  skill,  or  facility 
in  any  bodily  or  mental  operation.  No  teaching  can  be  effectual  that  is 
not  supplemented  by  training;  that  is  to  say,  not  only  is  the  understanding 
of  the  pupil  to  be  addressed,  but  the  principle  of  h<(hil  is  to  be  appealed 
to.  (See  Habit.) 

UNIVERSITY,  a  name  fir.st  given,  in  the  middle  ages,  to  institutions 
for  superior  instruction.  In  the  second  half  of  the  1  2th  century,  a  free 
union  of  students  of  medicine  was  formed  in  Salerno  (ll.^)(l),  and  another 
of  students  of  law  in  Hologna  (11.^)8).  The  students  had  equal  rights 
Avith  the  i)rofessors  in  these  unions;  which  soon  attracted  such  crowds 
that,  in  Bologna,  the  studies  of  medicine  and  theology  were  added;  and, 
in  Salerno,  those  of  law  and  ]lhilosoph3^  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
modern  European  university.  At  the  university  of  Bologna,  as  well  as 
at  the  universities  of  Padua  and  Naples,  which  were  early  established, 
the  study  of  law  remained  predominant,  ecclesiastical  and  secular  law 
[decreta  and  leges)  being  eagerly  studied  in  order  to  obtain  high  offices  in 
church  and  state.  In  I'aris,  a  university  arose  from  the  cathedral  school, 
and  as  the  chief  seat  of  scholasticism,  soon  attained  the  rank  of  the  fore- 
most university  of  western  Europe.  'J'he  formation  of  'ixttions  and  of 
faculties  exerted  a  decisive  influence  upon  the  further  development  of  the 
university.  As  scliolars  from  all  parts  of  the  Christian  world  flocked  to 
J'aris  in  large  numbers,  and  the  government  of  the  state  took  no  notice 
of  them,  they  found  it  necessary  to  form  national  groups  for  the  purpose 
of  self-government.     Thus,  the  four  nedions  of  the  Oallicans  (including 


TEiVTILATIOX  287 

Spaniai'ds,  Italians,  Greeks,  and  Orientals),  the  Picards,  the  Normans,  and 
the  English  (inclnding  Germans  and  Northmen)  were  formed.  The 
formation  of  special  faculties  was  caused  by  the  ^Mendicants'  orders,  which 
early  recognized  the  importance  of  the  rising  university,  and,  as  teachers 
of  theology  and  ecclesiastical  law,  assumed,  in  regard  to  the  nations,  an 
independent  position.  In  consequence  of  the  complications  which  were 
produced  by  their  teaching,  the  professors  of  theology  (about  1270),  and, 
somewhat  later,  those  of  medicine  and  of  ecclesiastical  law,  formed  a  union, 
and  in  this  way  organized  three  distinct  faculties.  The  faculties  represented, 
thex'efore,  special  sciences;  while  the  four  nations,  as,  a  continuation  and 
enlargement  of  the  former  cathedral  school,  represented  the  trivium  and 
the  quadrivium,  or  the  preparatory  sciences.  Following,  at  length,  the 
example  of  the  other  faculties,  the  nations  gradually  transformed  them- 
selves into  the  faculty  of  the  liberal  arts,  which,  for  a  time,  occupied  a 
position  inferior  to  that  of  the  older  faculties.  These  developments  made 
the  university  of  Paris  the  great  literary  center  of  Europe;  and,  at  times, 
it  was  attended  by  more  than  20,000  students.  See  Cydopcpclia  of  Edu- 
cation. 

VENTILATION".  Probably  no  subject  connected  with  the  improve- 
ment of  schools  has,  of  late  years,  been  more  fully  and  earnestly  discussed 
than  that  of  ventilation.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  results  reached 
have  by  no  means  corresponded  in  importance  to  the  length  or  vigor  of 
the  discussion.  Notwithstanding  the  minute  and  elaborate  experiments 
made  by  modern  science  on  this  subject,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that 
the  only  point  of  agreement  is,  that  ample  ventilation  is  of  paramount  im- 
portance in  the  economy  of  the  scliool  room.  Any  recommendation  of 
particular  methods  of  effecting  this,  or  any  appeal  to  statistics  or  experi- 
mental details,  becomes  at  once  the  occasion  for  fresh  dispute.  The  subject 
will  be  considered  here  under  the  following  heads:  (I)  The  conditions 
favorable  to  proper  ventilation;  (II)  The  methods  employed  to  utilize 
those  conditions;  (III)  Some  of  the  ways  in  which  ventilation  is  pre- 
vented. 

I.  Under  this  head,  will  be  considered  (1)  the  sources  from  -which  a 
proper  supply  of  fresh  air  for  the  school  room  is  to  be  obtained,  and  the 
quality  of  air  so  obtained;  and  (2)  the  determination  of  the  quantity 
needed  by  each  pupil  for  purposes  of  respiration.  That  the  great  reser- 
voir of  the  outer  air  which  surrounds  the  school  room  is  the  only  proper 
source  of  supply  for  the  lungs  of  its  inmates,  requires  no  demonstration; 

J  .  the  only  question  being  that  which  concerns  its  purity.  The 
j^res.i  air.  ^\^qq^  j^j^^j  intimate  connection  which  has  been  ascertained  to 
exist  between  the  air  which  we  breathe  and  the  blood,  has  been  found  to 
extend  to  the  brain,  and  healthful  intellectual  activity  and  pure  air  are 
now  almost  convertible  terms.  Whatever  causes,  therefore,  tend  to  viti- 
ate the  air  surrounding  the  school  building  should  be  carefully  eliminated. 
(Concerning  the  proper  site  of  the  school  building,  as  regarded  from  a 
sanitary  stand-point,  see  Hygiene,  School.)  Another  cause  which,  in 
certain  sites,  and,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  in  any  site,  may  affect 
the  quality  of  the  air  introduced  into  the  school-room,  is  the  height  above 
the  ground  from  which  it  is  drawn.    The  danger  to  be  apprehended  from 


288  TEXTILATION" 

malarial  fever,  one  of  the  most  insidious  foes  of  the  human  race  detected 
by  modern  sanitary  science,  has  led  recent  writers  on  the  subject  of  venti- 
lation to  recommend  that  the  inlet  for  fresh  air  be  placed  as  high  as  pos- 
sible, so  that  the  lower  stratum  of  air  —  that  near  the  ground  or  from  the 
cellar  —  be  not  admitted. 

Much  of  the  difficulty  which  attaches  to  the  siibjcct  of  ventilation, 
arises  from  the  fact  that  medical  men  who  have  given  special  attention  to 
the  matter,  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  the  amount  of  pure 
^ space!  ^^^  needed  by  each  person  for  purposes  of  respiration;  their 
estimates  of  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  space  required  by 
each  pupil  in  the  school  room  where  the  ventilation  is  ample,  varying  from 
1500  to  1.200.  From  a  comparative  examination  of  various  estimates,  it 
appears  that  the  average  amount  of  fresh  air  required  by  each  individual 
hourly  is  at  least  1 ,000  cubic  feet.  In  school  rooms  provided  with  ade- 
quate means  of  ventilation,  this  rcquii-es,  according  to  most  sanitarians,  at 
least  300  cubic  feet  of  space  for  each  pupil.  This,  though  hardly  above  the 
minimum,  exceeds,  probably,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  the  most  liberal  allow- 
ance made  by  tho.se  school  officers  who  pride  themselves  on  their  generosity 
in  this  respect.  Usually,  the  allowance  is  less  than  110  cubic  feet.  The 
cj^uantity  of  air,  also,  admitted  by  the  ventilating  ajiparatus,  bears  a  con- 
stant relation  to  the  size  of  the  room.  Says  Dr.  A.  N.  Bell  on  this  point, 
"  The  smaller  the  space,  the  greater  the  necessity  for,  and  the  larger  the 
opening  required  for,  the  admission  of  fresh  air.  *  *  *  It  has  been  calcu- 
lated that,  with  ordinary  exposure,  an  open  space  equal  to  5  inches  in  the 
square,  will  admit  the  passage  of  2,000  cubic  feet  hourly;  this,  of  course, 
implies  that  there  should  be  an  ecpal  amount  of  open  space  for  the  escape 
of  the  air  displaced". 

II.   In  considering  the  different  methods  of   ventilation,   attention 
should,  at  the  same  time,  be  given  to  the  method  of  warming  the  school- 
room; since  the  tM'o  subjects  are  almost  inseparably  connected. 

iY'«/«^(/Iow  '''^^'^  ^"*''''^"*^®  ^^  ^^ '"^^"^ ''^^'' ^"^'^  ^  room  for  breathing  purposes, 
'  is  inevitably  attended  by,  and  naturally  suggests,  a  correspond- 
ing exit  of  vitiated  air,  and  jwints  unmistakably  to  the  resulting  current 
as  the  most  etRcicnt  means  for  ventilation.  If  the  question  were  merely 
that  of  determining  the  easiest  way  of  replacing  a  certain  amount  of  im- 
l)ure,  by  a  corresponding  amount  of  pure,  air,  the  problem  would  be  one 
of  easy  solution;  since  the  difference  of  temperature  which  generally  exists 
between  the  outer  air  and  that  of  the  school  room  furnishes  the  condition 
most  favorable  to  ventilation,  the  only  agent  needed  being  a  connection 
between  the  two,  which  is  reailily  supplied  by  an  open  door  or  window. 
In  smnmcr,  this  method,  which  may  be  called  the  natural  one,  is  in  almost 
universal  use,  and  is  accompanied  generally  with  satisfactory  results.  In 
winter,  however,  the  violent  displacement  of  one  atmosphere  by  the  other, 
which  results  from  the  greater  difference  in  their  temperature,  and  which 
immediately  begins  when  a  connection  is  made  between  them,  makes  itself 
felt  in  the  shape  of  dangerous  drafts.  The  problem  for  the  inventor, 
therefore,  is  how  to  produce  this  change  of  air  without  any  perceptible 
draft;  and  to  this  additional  condition,  is  to  be  attributed  the  jiractical 
failure  of  so  many  ingenious  devices  which,  in  theory,  are  admirable.  One 
of  the  simplest  and  most  effective  methods  of  ventilation  is  used  in  connec- 


YENTILATIOX  289 

tion  with  the  method  of  warming  described  under  the  head  of  school  hy- 
giene. (See  Hygiene,  School.)  It  consists  of  a  chimney  with  two  flues, 
one  for  the  fire,  the  other  for  ventilation.  The  latter  is  separated  from 
the  former  by  a  partition  of  metal  which  becomes  heated  by  the  air  from 
the  fire,  and,  by  warming  the  column  of  air  in  the  ventilating  flue,  causes 
it  to  ascend,  tending  thus  to  produce  a  vacuum,  which  the  vitiated  air  of 
the  room  flows  in  to  fill.  The  ventilating  flue  has  two  registers,  one  near 
the  floor,  the  other  near  the  ceiling,  both  of  which  can  be  controlled  at 
pleasure.  A  more  economical  method  consists  in  making  a  ventilating 
flue  only,  but  making  it  sufficiently  large  to  permit  the  passage  of  the 
stove  pipe  along  its  middle  line,  while  leaving  considerable  air  space 
around  the  latter.  By  extending  the  stove  pipe  to  the  top  of  the  house, 
the  heat  of  the  stove  is  used,  as  in  the  previous  case.  If  the  room  is 
warmed  by  an  open  fire,  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  fuel  used  should  be 
charged  to  the  account  of  ventilation,  and  the  additional  expense  incurred 
should  not  be  regarded  as  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  economy,  but  rather  as 
an  observance  of  the  provisions  of  that  true  economy  which  does  not  look 
for  immediate  and  petty  results,  but  is  fundamental  in  its  action,  and 
conducive  to  the  permanent  benefit  of  teacher  and  pupil.  For  combined 
ventilating  and  warming  purposes,  in  small  school  rooms,  the  open  grate 
fire  has  many  advantages;  but,  of  course,  it  should  be  carefully  screened. 
For  more  elaborate  methods  of  ventilation,  with  modifications  to  suit  cir- 
cumstances, see  the  works  quoted  in  the  Appendix  of  this  work,  in  which 
the  subject  is  exhaustively  treated. 

III.  The  great  importance  of  effective  ventilation,  to  which  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly probable  that  the  public  mind  is  not  yet  sufficiently  aroused,  and 
the  practical  difficulty  which  attends  it  when  any  but  the 
iionsand  simplest  means  and  appliances  are  used,  render  it  necessary  to 
defects,  make  some  mention  of  the  ways  in  which  proper  ventilation  is 
thwarted,  even  when  it  is  apparently  provided  for.  These  are 
principally  two:  (1)  a  ventilating  apparatus,  originally  inadequate  in  size, 
or,  if  adequate,  the  ineffective  working  of  it,  through  frequent  derange- 
ment; (2)  the  overcrowding  of  the  school  room  after  the  originally  liberal 
estimates  for  air  supply,  based  on  a  smaller  number  of  pupils,  have  been 
made.  Insufficient  apparatus,  from  either  the  first  or  second  cause  men- 
tioned above,  is  one  of  the  commonest  difficulties  with  which  intelligent 
school  officers  have  to  contend;  so  easy  is  it  for  any  one,  in  the  absence  of 
decidedly  bad  results,  to  lose  sight  of  the  essential  conditions  of  a  healthy 
school  room,  and  so  clamorous  is  the  tax-payer  usually  for  smaller  demands 
upon  his  purse.  In  the  compromises  which  generally  follow  these  contests 
between  the  pocket  and  the  lungs,  it  is  too  often  found  that  the  greater 
concessions  have  been  made  by  the  latter.  In  the  second  case  —  that  of 
overcrowding  —  the  same  deleterious  effects  follow,  insufficient  air  space 
being  the  evil  in  both.  Even  intelligent  teachers  are,  in  this  way,  fre- 
quently deceived.  The  number  of  pupils  is  increased  so  gradually  that  the 
evil  is  for  a  long  time  unsuspected,  and  not  till  "its  effects  have  declared 
themselves  in  soine  unmistakable,  and  perhaps  fatal,  manner,  is  attention 
called  to  the  probable  cause.  As  has  been  said,  the  air  provided  for 
breathing  purposes  should  be  drawn  from  out-of-doors,  at  a  height  above 
the  ground  sufficient  to  preclude  all  danger  from  exhalations,  and  should 


290  VOICE 

be  introduced  into  llie  room  at  the  opposite  end  from  that  at  which  the 
impure  air  passes  out,  and  at  the  top  of  the  room,  but  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  drafts.  This  is  best  done  by  providing  a  number  of  small  aper- 
tures, the  air  from  which  passes  through  the  vitiated  air  of  the  room  in 
numerous  small  currents  which  are  imperceptible,  and  which  cause  the 
fresh  air  to  be  evenly  diffused.  If  warmed  by  a  cellar  furnace,  it  should 
not  be  introduced  into  the  room  by  floor  registers,  since  these  are  always, 
more  or  less,  traps  for  dust,  which  thus,  in  some  shape,  is  liable  to  be 
taken  into  the  lungs.  The  ventilating  apparatus  should  not  only  be  suf- 
ficiently large  at  tiie  outset,  but  should  be  thoroughly  tested  before  it  is 
introduced,  so  as  to  ascertain  whether  its  w^orking  sustains  the  theory  of 
its  construction,  and  should  be  carefully  examined,  from  time  to  time,  with 
the  view  to  secure  its  constant  efficiency.  —  For  literature  of  this  subject, 
see  the  Appendix  of  this  work. 

VOICE,  Culture  of  the.     The  human  voice  may  be  considered  as 
the  audible  expression   of  the  mental  and  physical  characteristics  of  its 
posses.sor;  and,   therefore,  no  means  employed  in  the  varied  processes  of 
education   are    of  more  importance  than  those  that  have  regard  to  its 
culture.     Its  powers  are  often  widely  misunderstood  and  mis- 
Injnry  to  applied,  sometimes  abused  and  destroyed.     In    the  very  begin- 
ning of  education,  large  numbers  of  boys,  in  addition  to  marked 
inherited  peculiarities,  such  as  defective  ears,  weak  lungs,  asthmatic  and 
husky  bronchial  tubes,  contracted  che.sts,  elongated  palates,  and  inflamed, 
swollen  tonsils,  are  permitted  to  indulge  in  the  pernicious  ha])it  of  loud 
shouting  and  hurrahing,  and  in  the  baneful  and  distressing  use  of  the  cliest 
tones,  so  frequently  heard  in  the  singing  of  male  pupils.     Every  boy  should 
be  made  to  understand  that  if  he  thus  abuses  his  voice,  he  must  not  expect 
to  overcome  his  constitutional  defects,  or  retain  a  tone  which,  even  by  a.s- 
siduous  practice,  will  become  agreeable  to  his  audience,  in  reading,  decla- 
mation, or  vocal  music.  Girls,  while  in  many  instances  they  have  all  the  in- 
herited disadvantages  above  referred  to,  present,  through  their  more  deli- 
cate organization  and  guarded  h.abits,  far  more  promising  material  for  the 
production  of  purely  musical  effects.     Parents  and  teachers  may  well  take 
warning,  also,  in   the  education  of  either  boys  or  girls,  against  a  long- 
continued  strain  upon  their  vocal  chords.     Many  a  young  voice  has  been 
completely  ruined  by  this  untimely  forcing  of  the  powers  of  the  youthful 
candidate  for  declamatory  or  musical  honors.     A  child  five  years  of  age, 
for  example,  is  placed  on  a  chair,  to  amuse  a  large  audience  by  speaking  or 
singing  in  a  forced  utterance,  and  with  an   unnaturally  loud   chest  tone, 
entirely  beyond  its  years,  or  powers  of  endurance.     8uch  a  tax  upon  its 
vocal  chords,  if  long  continued,  is  exceedingly  injurious.     The  medium  or 
falsetto  tone,  that  most  mellow,  most  musical,  most  sweet  and  expressive 
part  of  the  female  voice,  or  of  the  unchanged  voice  of  the  boy,  gradually 
deteriorates,  and  is  finally  lost  by  this  injurious  process.     The  remedy  for 
tills  destruction  lies  in  the  early  protection  of  the  health,  and  in 
Remedy,    ^j^^  careful  iise  of   the  young  voice,  at  liome,  in  school,  in  the 
church,  and  wherever  there  is  any  danger  of  this  overstraining  of   its 
powers.     'J'lie  vocal  exercises  should  be  within  a  limited  compass,  —  neither 
too  high  nor  too  low.     All  forcing  of  the  voice  should  be  positively  for- 
biddeirand  avoided;  and  each  lesson  should  come  to  a  close  without  fatigue. 


VOICE  291 

An  easy  and  systematic  mode  of  breathing  should  be  an  early  acquisition, 
since  it  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  success  in  singing,  as  well  as  in  speak- 

ing.  Tone,  of  itself,  being  nothing  more  nor  less  than  breath, 
produced.  ?^  ^"'  ^^  motion  through  contact  with  a  sonorous  body,  it  is 

important  to  know,  to  some  degree  at  least,  the  character  of 
the  organs  which  enter  into  the  production  of  vocal  tone.  All  culti- 
vated speakers  and  singers  are  conscious  of  a  thorough  employment  of 
the  abdominal  muscles,  and  of  those  of  the  diaphragm,  in  order  to  secure 
complete  control  of  the  breath.  Inhaling,  however,  may  be  carried  to 
excess,  a  result  well  known  to  professional  dramatic  vocalists,  who  often 
protect  themselves  against  rupture  by  wearing  shoulder  braces,  trusses, 
and  abdominal  supporters.  Rclialing  involves  that  careful  use  of  the 
diaphragm,  which  keeps  the  intercostal  nerves  and  muscles  in  a  state  of 
tension,  in  order  that  the  lungs  may  have  their  fullest  play.  To  know 
when  and  where  to  inhale  and  to  exhale,  is  as  necessary  to  the  speaker,  iu 
his  written  or  extemporaneously  delivered  sentences,  as  it  is  to  the  singer, 
in  the  enunciation  of  his  musical  phrases;  and.  in  such  case,  it  assumes  the 
dignity  of  consummate  art,  —  an  indispensable  and  prime  necessity  to  the 
conscientious  interpreter  of  either  classic  language  or  classic  music.  With- 
out ease,  sustained  repose,  and  a  method  made  effective  through  long  habit, 
in  the  management  of  the  breath,  all  subsequent  attention  to  details  in  the 
art  of  speaking  or  singing  is  measurably  lost.  Demosthenes,  with  pebbles 
in  his  mouth,  declaiming  to  the  winds  and  waves  on  the  sea-shore,  and 
Braham,  lifting  up  his  voice  amid  the  hills  and  forests  of  Northumberland, 
may  profitably  be  remembered  and  imitated  by  all  students  who  desire  to 
remedy  defects,  and  to  acquire  new  breathing  power.  —  A  graceful  attidude, 
and  thorough  skill  in  the  proper  use  of  the  breath  being  gained,  the  close 
sympathy  always  existing  between  the  bronchial  tubes  and  the  stomach 
next  demands  attention.  A  rapid  and  complete  digestion  is  esteemed  by 
all  intelligent  persons  the  greatest  of  physical  blessings;  and  to  no  one  is 
it  a  more  necessary  condition  of  success  than  to  the  public  speaker  or 
singer.  So  important  is  this  to  the  professional  vocalists,  that  those  times, 
in  the  daily  routine  of  duty,  which  find  the  lungs  and  bronchial  tubes  freest 
from  the  oppression  arising  from  sympathy  with  the  stomach,  in  its  process 
of  digestion,  should  be  selected  for  practice.  Fi'oceeding  upward  toward 
the  organs  of  articulation,  we  arrive  at  the  trachea,  or  windpipe,  the  larynx, 
and  the  pharynx.  It  is  a  prolific  subject  of  discussion  among  speakers 
and  singers,  whether  the  character  of  the  tone  depends  as  much  upon  the 
size  of  the  lungs,  the  bronchial  tubes,  the  windpipe,  the  larynx,  and  the 
pharynx,  as  it  does  upon  the  condition  of  the  muscles  and  nerves,  and 
more  remotely  still  upon  the  general  organization,  temperament,  will,  and 
endurance  of  the  speaker  or  singer.  It  is  surprising  to  notice  the  compass 
and  the  variety  of  tone  which  the  larynx  can  produce,  by  using  the  vowels 
alone.  Beginning  with  the  lowest  sounds  of  the  base  voice,  and  ascending 
in  regular  order  through  its  limits,  of  one  and  a  half  or  two  octaves; 
through  the  compass  of  the  baritone,  with  a  similar  register,  though  some- 
what higher  in  pitch;  and,  successively,  through  the  registers  assigned  to 
the  tenor,  contralto,  mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano  voices,  there  is  embraced 
Hg^gg  a  compass  of  four  octaves  of  available  tones  susceptible  of  cul- 
voice.      tivation  to    an    almost   infinite   degree    of  excellence.      Bass 


202  VOICK 

voices  confine  themselves  mainly  to  tlic  use  of  the  chest  tones  through- 
out their  entire  register;  but  the  barytones,  by  a  prudent  use  of  the 
somber  tone,  and  of  the  medium  register,  greatly  increase  the  pure  quality 
and  flexibility  of  the  higher  portions  of  their  voices.  For  the  orator  or 
declaimer,  there  is  no  quality  of  tone  comparable  to  that  of  the  orotund 
base  or  barytone  voice;  and,  in  the  oratorio  and  opera,  it  is  assigned  to 

characters  of  inherent  dignity  and  force.  The  tenor  voice,  un- 
leiior.  (loubtedly,  demands  a  combination  of  native  and  acquired 
qualities,  which, in  some  countries,  are  exceedingly  rare.  In  its  uncultivated 
state  it  is  thin,  reedy,  and  somewhat  nasal;  but  steady,  persevering  practice 
u]ion  the  open  vowels  ah,  oh,  and  oo^  soon  corrects  this  defect,  and  rendere 
the  tenor,  of  all  male  voices,  the  most  tender  and  expressive,  (ireat  care 
should  be  exercised  by  tenor  voi(;es,  lest  the  clear  timbre  of  the  chest  tone 
be  carried  too  high,  thereby  crusiiing  out  the  delicacy  of  the  real  medium 
register,  which  is  the  most  flexible  and  available  part  of  the  tenor  voice. 

The  contralto,  n)ezzo-soi)rano,  and  soprano  voices  encounter  a 
Lonlralto  gj,^,ji.^j.  JiiHculty,  at  the  very  outset  of  their  practice,  in  combin- 
'  ing  the  chest  with  the  falsetto  or  medium  voice.  ^Vhile  this 
(lifTiculty  occurs  in  the  higher  register  of  the  male  voice,  it  is  found  in  the 
lower  register  of  the  female  voice,  and  presents  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
cultivation,  Avhich  nothing  but  long  and  persistent  practice  can  overcome, 
though  the  strain  upon  the  nervous  system  is  far  less  than  that  experienced 
by  the  male  voice.  The  contralto  yields  to  no  other  female  voice  in  de]>th 
and  richness  of  tone,  as  is  clearly  evident  after  listening  to  singers  like 
D'Angri  and  Alboni.  Naturally  not  so  flexible  as  the  soprano  or  mezzo- 
so])rano,  it  is  yet  endowed  with  a  wonderful  power  in  causing  eiTecta 
replete  with  the  most  ai'dent  j^assion,  ami  with  the  most  noble  womanly 
feeling.  There  is  a  great  temptation  to  abuse  the  lower  register  of  the 
contralto  voice  by  indulging  in  the  disagreeable  habit  of  forcing  the  chest 
tones  to  a  [)oint  bordering  upon  masculineness,  if  not  positive  coarseness. 
'I'lie  practice  of  descending  runs,  diatonic  and  chromatic,  using  the  medium, 
veiled,  or  somber  tone,  will  gradually  change  this  objectionable  habit. 
There  are  not  wanting  cases,  also,  of  contralto  voices  which  have  been 
destroyed  by  attemj)ts  to  cultivate  the  tone  and  compass  of  the  soprano, — 
a  process  absurd  and  unnatural  to  the  last  degree.  Notwithstanding  tlie 
efforts  of  some  late  authors  to  ignore  the  division  of  the  female  voice  into 
at  least  three  different  registers,  namely,  the  chest,  the  medium  or  falsetto, 
and  the  head;  these  registers  are  now  generally  recognized  by  the 
highest  and  most  competent  authorities.  Elaborate  methods 
decelmment  ^^^^   studies  for    the   development    of   the  contr.dto,  mezzo- 

'  so})rano,  and  soprano  voices  have  been  devised  with  these 
three  divi.sions  constantly  in  view.  Some  even  assert  that  there  are 
five  ilistinct  registers,  requiring  ji-S  many  different  modes  of  producing  the 
tone, —  a  condition  of  the  larynx  and  pharynx  suggesting  an  expertness 
in  the  management  of  the  voice  which  may  well  be  deemed  bewildering. 
It  is,  however,  too  certain  to  admit  of  a  doubt,  that  the  voices  of  the 
most  accomplished  female  vocalists  living  have  been  trained  by  recognizing 
this  division  into  the  chest,  meilium  or  falsetto,  and  head  registers,  and  are, 
moreover,  ])reserved  in  their  wonted  availability  by  adhering  to  the  same 
method.   Allusion  has  been  made  above  to  tlie  pharynx,  or  arched  chamber 


VOICE  293 

immediately  back  of  tlie  palate,  which  is  a  most  important  modifier  of  the 
voice  in  its  passage  from  the  larynx,  and  the  expansion  and    contraction 

of  which  gives  greater  or  less  volume  of  tone,  especially  if  the 
vhm-vnx    ^°°^  ^^  '^'^  tongue  be  not  artificially  enlarged,  so  as  to  produce 

an  impure  throatiness  of  tone,  frequently  heard  in  voices  im- 
perfectly cultivated  and  badly  managed.  To  know  the  important  influence 
of  a  healthly  pharynx  under  complete  control,  it  is  only  necessary  to  com- 
pare the  voice  of  one  possessing  it,  to  that  of  a  vocalist  suffering  with  a  cold 
in  the  head,  or  with  a  catarrhal  affection  and  swollen  tonsils.  The  dif- 
ference in  the  clearness  of  the  vibrations,  and  in  the  diffusive  character  of 
the  tone,  is  very  perceptible  and  marked.  A  clear  knowledge  of  the 
organs  which  are  employed  in  producing  a  vocal  tone,  and  of  the  proper 
combination  of  the  registers  to  secure  power,  purity,  and  equality  through- 
out the  entire  vocal   compass  being  gained,  the  organs  of  articulation 

present  themselves  for  particular  consideration;  and  this  leads 
latSn      directly  to  the  subject  of  musical  elocution.    System  and  facility 

in  breathing,  the  employment  of  all  the  proper  organs,  in  tlieir 
healthy  condition,  for  the  production  of  a  pure  tone,  expertness  in  reading 
music,  and  the  miimtest  attention  to  attitude  and  gesture,  will  all  fail  to 
produce  an  impression  worth  remembering,  unless  a  true  conception  of 
the  meaning  of  the  w^ords  and  music,  a  bold  enunciation,  a  distinct  articula- 
tion, a  well-rounded  phrasing,  and  an  accurate  intonation  be  added  to  tlie 
acquirements  of  the  finished  vocalist.  Conception  relates  to  both  words 
and  music.  If  it  be  necessary  for  the  speaker  to  study  well  the  significa- 
tion of  words,  in  order  to  get  at  the  true  meaning  of  the  poet,  it  is  even 
•  .  more  necessary  for  the  singer  to  do  so;  since  the  effect  of  melody 
"^^""''and  harmony  upon  all  persons,  is  such  as  to  deprive  them, 
measurably,  of  the  power,  for  the  time  being,  of  judging  of  the  signification 
of  words.  The  singer  who  rests  upon  the  simple  effect  of  his  melody,  is 
certainly  as  weak  as  the  speaker  who  relies  upon  his  manner  of  uttering 
fine  language,  rather  than  upon  the  strength  of  the  ideas  involved.  A 
true  conception,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  is  the  rarest  of  possessions 
among  modern  vocalists.  Proniaicidfion,  in  its  musical  connection,  not 
only  implies  that  enunciation,  or  careful   throwing  out  of  each  syllable 

and  word  which  good  speech  and  declamation  require,  but  also 
cfat'a"^'    ^'^^^^'  ^^''''^'^''  "*^t  particularly  recognizing  the  inflections  of  reading 

or  declamation,  is  entirely  absorbed  in  the  far  more  pernieating 
channel  of  sound,  a  melody  or  recitative  song  according  to  a  given  key  or 
scale.  Dr.  Rush  alludes  to  this  as  the  special  advantage  which  the  singer 
has  over  the  sjieaker.  Slowness  and  quickness  of  utterance  are  also  con- 
trolled, to  so  great  a  degree,  in  music,  by  the  relations  of  the  notes,  the 
bar,  the  fractional  measure-marks,  and  words  indicating  varieties  of  move- 
ment, that  there  is  left  less  liberty  to  the  singer  than  to  the  speaker,  in 
many  respects.  I:>ut  such  curtailment  of  liberty  (which  libert}\  by  the 
way.  is  often  a  clog  to  iiiex]ierienced  speakers),  and.  by  consec|uence,  greater 
concentration  upon  the  characteristics  of  the  melody,  only  tie  the  singer 
to  a  more  vivid  conception  of  the  subject,  and  to  a  more  distinct  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  words.  For  the  correction  of  marked  inelegancies  of  ]3ronuncia- 
tion,  whether  of  foreign  or  native  growth,  no  means  are  so  effective  as  the 
careful  study  of  the  classic  languages,  together  with  the  study  of  the  priu- 


294  VOICE 

cipal  modern  languages  taught  by  native  professors.  Of  these  latter,  the 
Italian  is  most  musical  in  itself,  and,  therefore,  is  most  useful  to  the  music- 
al student,  whose  pronunciation  of  his  native  language,  particularly  if  he 
be  English  or  German,  will  be  vastly  improved  by  often  reading  and 
singing  in  the  most  euphonious  of  modern  languages.  Of  distinct  articu- 
lation, it  may  in  general  be  said,  that  the  vowels  only  are  sung  while  the 
consonants  are  articulated;  in  other  words,  that  the  vowels  are  sung,  and 
the  consonants  are  spoken.  In  vocalizing  alone,  the  larynx,  obedient  to 
the  mind  and  will,  performs  unas.sisted.  save  by  the  lungs,  trachea,  jjharynx, 
and  diaphragm,  all  those  changes  which  promote  power,  purity,  sweetness, 
and  flexibility  of  tone.  Some  slight  changes  in  the  position  of  the  jaws, 
tongue,  and  lips  are  necessary  in  vocalizing  with  all,  ee,  oh,  and  oo\  but 
only  the  consonants,  as  initial,  intermediate,  or  final  letters,  require  a 
constant  and  vigorous  use  of  the  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips,  which  are  the  chief 
agents  in  acquiring  an  effective  articulation.  Full  respirations  should  be 
the  ride,  and  partial  respirations  the  exception.  In  plain  music,  where 
one  or  two  notes  are  appropriated  to  a  syllable,  the  article  should  not  be 
separated  from  the  noun  or  qualifying  adjective,  nor  the  adjective  from  the 
noun,  by  a  separated  breathing;  nor  should  the  syllables  of  a  word  be 
separated.  Long  diatonic  or  chromatic  runs,  arpeggios,  i.i'i\\ii,i\\\i\  cadenzas, 
must,  however,  be  executed  with  an  unbroken  continuity  of  the  musical 
plirase.  The  orotund  basso  or  barytone,  as  well  as  the  rich  and  deep  con- 
tralto, require  to  be  particular  in  their  articulation,  in  order  to  be  heard, 
since  the  very  fullness  of  their  voices  produces  a  resonance  not  easily  over- 
come in  large  assembly  rooms.  (xoo<X phrasing  implies  good  singing;  such 
a  knowledge  of  the  composer's  idea  on  the  part  of  the  singer,  as  shall  not 
.  mar,  to  say  the  least,  either  the  poetic  or  musical  synnuetry  of 
I  hrasiii;/.  ^jjj^^  jg  sung.  Xhe  singer  should  be  able  to  analyze  the  phrases 
he  sings,  in  order  that,  in  melodic  and  harmonic  construction,  he  may  dis- 
cover where  they  begin,  how  they  progress,  and  where  they  end.  But,  if 
he  cannot  do  this,  he  should  be  able,  intuitively  to  grasp  a  musical  passage 
to  the  fullest  extent  of  its  melodic  proportions,  and  spontaneously  to  pre- 
sent it  with  such  accessories  as  shall  make  it  appear  his  own.  All  the 
bright  coloring  which  may  be  imparted  by  a  vivid  conception,  a  good 
pronunciation  and  articulation,  will  be  seriously  dimmed  by  defective 
phrasing.  J/ast,  but  by  no  means  least,  there  must  be  the  accurate  intona- 
tion which  is  the  result  of  a  correct  car.  Some  persons  do  not  hear  cor- 
rectly, concords  becoming  to  them  discords.  A\'liether  it  be  a  local  dif- 
ficulty of  the  tympanum,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  a  rigidity  of  the  entire 
organization  and  sluggishness  of  tenqierament,  the  fact  is  obvious  that  de- 
fective ears  are  l)y  no  means  uncommon;  and,  of  coui-se,  to  imi- 
Intonahon,  ^^^^  musical  sounds  with  the  voice,  in  such  ciises,  is  an  impos- 
sibility. Tlie  commonness  of  the  defect  increases,  as  we  descend 
in  tlie  scale  of  social  being,  particularly  where,  in  addition  to  poverty 
and  moral  degradation,  there  is  superadded  tlic  prolific  cause,  absence  of 
youthful  opportunities  of  hearing  music  well  sung  or  played.  Could  all 
clas.ses.  without  exception,  be  gladdened,  when  young,  by  hearing  music 
correctly  sung  and  played,  the  number  of  those  who  pass  through  life  un- 
moved "by  the  concord  of  sweet  .sounds",  would  be  much  diminished.  It 
is  important,  also,  that  the  sounds,  heard  by  children,  be  correct  both  as  to 


WOED  METHOD  —  WORDS  295 

melody  and  rhythm,  if  it  be  expected  that  such  children,  when  grown, 
shall  have  a  so-called  good  ear  for  music.  In  remarking  upon  articulation, 
the  value  of  the  vowel  sounds  ah,  ee,  oh,  and  oo  was  noticed;  and  it  is  known 
that  a  thorough  scale,  and  rhythmical  use  of  these,  combined  with  all  the 
consonants  as  initial  and  final  letters,  will  not  only  develop  a  more  distinct 
articulation,  but  also  a  purer,  more  effective,  and  manageable  tone.  For 
standard  authorities,  on  this  subject,  see  Cyclopaedia  of  Education. 

WORD  METHOD,  a  term  applied  to  the  analytic  method  of  teach- 
ing children  to  read.  The  process  consists  of  using  short  words  instead  of 
letters  in  the  fii'st  lessons,  the  pupil  learning  to  recognize  and  pronounce 
these  words,  and  sometimes  to  read  easy  sentences,  before  learning  the  names 
of  the  letters.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  words  have  been  learned,  the 
pupil  is  shown  their  composite  character,  and  taught  the  names  and  sounds 
of  the  letters  which  form  them,  thus  learning  the  alphabet.  In  this  proc- 
ess, care  should  be  taken  to  select  appropriate  words,  and  present  them  in 
a  progressive  manner,  as:  cat,  rat,  hat,  mat,  —  man,  fan,  can, —  dog,  log, 
etc.  The  pupil,  in  this  way,  perceives  the  power  of  each  letter,  and  soon 
learns  to  spell  and  pronounce  words,  after  which  the  synthetic  method 
may  be  employed.     (See  Alphabet  Method.) 

WORDS,  Analysis  of.  The  analysis  or  resolving  of  words  into 
their  elementary  parts,  is  an  important  branch  of  the  study  of  languages, 
the  native  as  well  as  foreign.  In  ordinary  school  parlance,  this  branch  is 
sometimes  styled  etymology,  since  the  analysis  comprehends  not  only  an  ex- 
planation of  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  parts  of  a  word  —  both  root  and 
affixes,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  derivation  of  these.  For  elementary  school 
purposes,  however,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  latter  is  of 
secondary  importance.  In  the  study  of  the  native  tongue,  it  will  be 
acknowledged,  the  importance  of  training  pupils  to  analyze  compouncl  and 
derivative  words  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  The  fact  that 
the  study.  **^^  English  language  derives  about  one-half  of  the  words  in  ordi- 
■  nary  use  from  the  Latin,  renders  exercises  in  word  analysis,  of  far 
greater  necessity  for  the  study  of  Pmglish,  than  for  that  of  most  other 
languages.  That,  without  being  trained  in  this  analysis,  pupils  will 
scarcely  be  able  to  grasp  the  true  meaning  of  English  words,  probably  no 
experienced  teacher,  at  present,  will  be  inclined  to  dispute.  To  very  many 
of  the  pupils  Avho  are  merely  drilled  in  spelling  and  reading,  the  force 
even  of  the  most  common  Anglo-Saxon  prefixes,  like  a,  be,  en,  etc.,  and  of 
suffixes,  like  dom,  hood,  ship,  etc.,  must  remain  unknown.  How  many, 
for  example,  will  be  able  to  infer  the  meaning  of  foi-  or  fore  in  forswear 
and  forego  ?  The  knowledge  of  the  Latin  prefixes  and  suffixes,  even  in 
the  words  of  ordinary  life,  will  be  acquired  with  still  greater  difficulty  by 
pupils  not  sufficiently  trained  in  word  analysis.  On  the  other  hand,  only 
a  slight  knowledge  of  the  simplest  Latin  prefixes,  as:  ad,  con,  pre,  pjro, 
sub,  etc.,  affords  a  key  to  the  distinctive  meaning  of  a  large  number  of 
words.  It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  gratification  to  find  that,  at  present, 
this  branch  of  study  is  scarcely  ever  entirely  omitted  from  the  common- 
school  course  of  instruction. 

In  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching  word  analysis,  it  may  justly 
be   said  that  there   are   few  subjects  taught   in   elementary  schools  to 


29G  AVORDS 

■vvliich  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  developing  method  can  so  eas- 
ily, and  with  so  much  advantage,  be  applied  as  to  this.     At  whatever 
stage  of  the  pupil's  progress  the  instruction  may  begin,  provided 
MethoiJs  of  ^  knowledge  of  reading   and  writing  has  been   acquired,  the 
eacivig.  j,y,j^|j(,j,  ^^   words  akeady  learned,   will  be  found  ample  for 
the  first   and   easiest  exercises.     Hardly  any    arbitrary  memorizing  is 
needed,  since,  if  the  teacher  follow  a  natural    course,  he  will  only  have 
to  develop  the  knowledge  already  in  the  child's  mind.      Thus,  children, 
even  in  the  lowest  grades,  knowing  the  meaning  of  words  like  teacher  and 
jweacher,  will  not  find  the  least  difficulty  in  understanding  that  er,  in 
both  these  words,  means  one  who,  and  in  perceiving  that  these  words  mean, 
respectively,  one  who  teaches,  and  one  who  preaches.  ]S'ine-tenths  of  a  class 
of  pupils,  of  ordinary  intelligence,  will  now  readily  find,  among  the  words 
they  are  accustomed  to  use,  several  others  in  which  the  suffix  er  has  the 
same  meaning.     They  will  not  only  fully  comprehend  this  initiatory  les- 
son, but  they  will  feel  a  manifest  delight  that  one  simple  explanation  has 
so  greatly  added  to  their  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words.    The  intelli- 
gent teacher  will  not  fail  to  perceive  that  the  more  closely  he  is  able  to 
accomodate  his  teaching  to  the  knowledge  of  the  words  which  belong  to 
the  pupils'  own  vocabulary,  the  more  rapid  will  be  their  progress,  and  the 
more  intense  will  be  the  interest  which  they  will  take  in  the  new  study. 
It  is  obviously  a  point  of  great  importance  that  the  first  examples  of  pre- 
fixes or  suffixes  that  are  presented,  should  fully  illu.strate  tlieir  general 
meaning.     Thus,  the  word  teacher  would  be  a  better  selection  for  this 
purpose  than  grocei-;  sailor,  better  than  tailor;  and  repay,  better  than 
o-eccive.     In  the  further  progress  of  the  study,  it  is  important  that  the 
most  common  prefixes  and  suffixes  should  be  learned  before  those  of  rarer 
use.     It  shows  a  great  lack  of  ])edagogical  tact  in  a  teacher  to  drill  his 
pupils  o\\  preter,  sul/tcr,  and  retro,  before  tliey  know  the  meaning  of  siih, 
can,  and  in.     A  more  difficult  stage  of  this  branch  of  study,  is  that  which 
treats  of  the  Latin  roots,  and  their  u.se  in  Knglish  words.    Here, 
-^^'"''      also,  a  strict  adherence  to  the  princi2)le  that  we  should  proceed 
'""  ^"      from  the  "  known  to  the  unknown"  —  from  an  analysis  of  what 
is  already  in  the  pupil's  mind  to  that  which  is  new,  will  guide  the  teacher 
with  unerring  certainty  on   the  right  path.     For  example,  a  judicious 
teacher  who  desires  to  familiarize  his  puinls  with  the  dcrivates  from  the 
Latin  root  due  or  duct  (from  duco),  will  not,  at  first,  select  such  words  as 
induct,  inductive,  superinduce,  etc.,  or  even  words  like  adduce,  conduce, 
deduce,  before  his  pupils  have  learned  to  analyze  words  of  a  more  obvious 
meaning;  a^  introduce,  p7-oduce,  reduce,  aqueduct,  viaduct,  etc.     AVhat  is 
here  meant  is,  that  the  first  lessons  in  this  kind  of  analysis  should  concern 
oidy  those  words  the  meaning  of  which  may  readily  be  explained  by 
showing  the  meaning  of  their  parts.     In  every  subject  of  instruction,  the 
order  of  presenting  the  various  matters  which  are  to  be  learned  by  the  pu- 
jiil,  is  of  vital  importance;  but  in  none  is  it  more  essential  than  in  the 
etymological  analysis  of  words.      The  numerous  class  of  words  which  can- 
not be  explained,  except  by  the  history  of  their  formation  (such  as  andn- 
tio)i,  candidate,  chancellor,  peculiar;  also  sycophant,  fjazette,  quarantine, 
Greek      ^^^■)  should  be  reserved  for  a  higher  grade  of  this  study.       The 
roots,      analysis  of  words  derived  from  the  (J reek,  should  follow  that 


ZOOLOGY  297 

of  words  derived  from  Latin  roots;  and  the  discussion  of  the  etymolog- 
ical affinity  of  the  words  of  different  languages  should  be  reserved  for 
that  stage  of  the  course  of  studies  which  comprehends  comparative  philol- 
ogy. —  For  list  of  works  on  this  subject,  see  Supplementary  List  in  the 
Appendix.     (See  also  English,  the  Study  of.) 

ZOOLOGY  (Gr.  Z,uov,  an  animal,  and  Myoq,  a  discourse)  treats  of  the 
structure,  classification,  habits,  etc.,  of  animals.  It  is  an  important  branch 
of  descriptive  natural  science,  or  natural  history,  and  usually  forms  a  part 
of  the  course  of  study  in  various  grades  of  schools.  In  element- 
Elementary  ^^^  instruction,  it  constitutes,  with  its  sister  science,  botany. 
msrucion.^^^  of  the  most  effective  and  available  subjects  for  training 
the  observing  faculties;  and,  hence,  is  often  comprised  in  the  course  of 
instruction  prescribed  for  common  schools.  This  subject  has  peculiar 
attractions  for  children;  since,  as  is  well  known,  they  invariably  manifest 
a  deep  interest  in  animal  life.  The  principles  by  which  the  teacher 
should  be  guided  in  giving  instructiou  in  this,  as  in  other  branches  of 
natural  science,  have  been  to  some  extent  explained  in  previous  articles. 
(See  AsTRoxo.MY,  and  Botany.)  Iu  teaching  zoology,  care  must  be  partic- 
ularly taken  to  exhibit  as  much  as  possible  the  natural  objects  them- 
selves; and,  in  elementary  teaching,  this  comes  first.  'Iliat  is  to  say,  the 
pupils  ai-e  not  to  be  required  to  commit  to  memory  dry  definitions  and 
formulated  statements;  but  their  minds  should  be  brought  in  contact  with 
the  living  realities.  In  this  way  an  interest  in  the  study  will  be  created 
without  which  no  real  progress  can  be  made.  After  a  considerable  amount 
of  discursive  observation,  so  that  the  child's  mind  has  become  stored  with 
conceptions,  a  more  systematic  treatment  may  be  commenced,  approaching 
the  elements  of  classification,  the  pupil  being  gradually  made  to  perceive 
the  distinctions  upon  which  the  classification  depends.  In  order  to  fix 
these  destinctious  in  the  mind,  well-known  animals  may  be  taken  as  types: 
»s,  {c\ass,\)  man,  monkeij, bat,  cat,  rat,  horse,  deer,  cow,  whale;  (2)  eagle, 
parrot,  canary,  rooster,  ostrich,  snipe,  duck;  (3)  turtle,  alligator,  rattle- 
snake, frog;  (4)  perch,  cod,  shark,  Qtc;  (5)  bee,  butterfli/,  beetle,  etc.;  ((J) 
spider,  crab;  (7)  squid,  snail,  oyster;  (8)  starfish,  jellyfish,  coral.  Thus 
the  classes,  orders,  and  genera  may  be  illustrated  very  clearly,  and  in  an 
interesting  manner. 

At  first  it  is  better  to  use  the  simple  English  vocabulary  than  to  trouble 
the  mind  of  the  young  pupil  with  the  ditficult,  and  to  him  unmeaning, 
scientific  terms;  as  four-handed  instead  of  quadrumana,  gnawers  for 
rodentia,  scratchers,  for  rasores,  two-winged  for  diptera,  etc.  In  this 
elementary  instruction,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  classification  should 
include  species  and  variety,  in  some  cases  not  even  genera;  but  in  describ- 
ing an  animal  it  is  proper  to  require  the  pupil  to  mention  the  class,  order, 
family,  and  genus,  and  in  this  order. 

Great  care  should  be  taken,  as  in  all  science  teaching,  to  have  the  pupil 
depend  as  much  as  possible  upon  his  own  observation  for  the  facts  used; 
and,  as  in  botany,  the  schedule  system  may  have  a  modified  or  limited 
application  in  teaching  this  subject.  Microscopic  examinations  of  a  simple 
kind  may  also  be  resorted  to  in  order  to  increase  the  interest  of  the  pupil, 
and  kindle  a  desire  for  closer  research. 


298  ZOOLOGY 

In  the  higher  grades  of  instruction,  the  three  different  departments  of 
the  science  —  morphology,  physiology,  and  distribution,  should  systematic- 
ally  be  treated.  In  every  grade  of  instruction,  however,  the 
.  ^.JL^  teacher  or  professor  cannot  too  closely  follow  the  principle 
'  laid  down  by  Huxley:  "  The  great  business  of  the  scientific 
teacher  is  to  imprint  the  fundamental,  irrefragable  facts  of  his  science, 
not  only  by  words  upon  the  mind,  but  by  sensible  impressions  upon  the 
eye,  and  ear,  and  touch  of  the  student,  in  so  complete  a  manner,  that 
every  term  used,  or  law  enunciated,  may  afterwards  call  up  vivid  images 
of  the  particular  structural,  or  other,  facts  which  furnished  the  demon- 
stration of  the  law,  or  the  illustration  of  the  term".  Moreover,  ever)'- 
teacher  should  hear  in  mind  that  a  good  share  of  his  own  knowledge 
should  be  at  first-hand  —  acquired  by  his  own  observation,  not  simply 
gleaned  from  books  —  or  he  will  not  succeed  in  awakening  an  interest  in 
the  minds  of  his  pujiils.  The  proper  method  of  teaching  this  subject  has 
been  clearly  shown  by  one  of  its  greatest  masters.  See  Huxley,  0>i  the 
Studi/  of  Zoolog)/^  in  Tlie  Culture  demanded  by  Modern  Life.  (X.  Y., 
18G7.)     (See  Science,  the  Teaching  of.) 


APPENDIX. 


A  SELECT  LIST  OF 


EDUCATIONAL    WORKS, 


ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  AND  GERMAN, 


ARRANGED  BY 


W.  H.   PAYNE,  M.  A., 

Peofessok  of  the  Science  and  the  Art  of  Teaching 
IN  THE  University  of  ilicHiuAN. 


299 


•THE  DICTIONAKY   OF   EDUCATION   AND   INSTRUCTION 


"A  true  university  in  these  days  is  a  collection  of  books.'' 

Carlyle. 

"If  the  soul  of  a  library  be  its  librarian,  its  heart  is  the 
catalogue."  Gentleman's  Magazine. 

''If  you  are  troubled  with  a  pride  of  accnrac}',  and  would 
have  it  taken  completely  out  of  you,  print;  catalogue.'' 

Stevens. 


CONTENTS. 

I.  WORKS  OF  REFERENCE. 

II.  ALLIED  SCIENCES. 

III.  GENERAL  EDUCATION. 

IV.  SPECIAL   EDUCATION. 
V.  SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 

VI.  HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

VII.  MISCELLANEOUS  EDUCATIONAL  LITERATURE. 


.      NOTICE. 

This  List  purposely  omits  works  that  are  out  of  print,  or  are  privately 
printed,  or  otherwise  difficult  to  obtain.  Ou  the  other  hand  it  is  intended 
to  enumerate  —  within  its  limited  compass  —  publications  now  in  the 
market  that  are  of  sufficient  merit  and  importance.  It  will  be  revised  for 
future  editions,  and  the  undersigned  publishers  will,  therefore,  be  obliged 
for  the  suggestion  of  corrections  and  additions. 

E.  STEIGER  &  CO. 


300 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


I.  WORKS  OF  REFERENCE. 


Bibliographies,    Catalogues,    Cyclopaedias, 
Books  and  Text-Books  of  Education. 


Dictionaries,    Hand- 


Henry  Barnard.  Library  of  Practical 
Pedagogy.  8vo.  10  vols.  —  Xational 
System  of  Education.  8vo.  10  vols. 
—  400  Treatises  ou  Educational  Sub- 
jects. — 

For  prices  address  Henry  Barnard,  28 

Main  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 

J.  B.  Basedow's  Elementarwerk.  Ein  en- 
cyclopddisches  Metkoden-  u.  BUdungs- 
buch  fixr  alle  Kindererziehung  und  den 
Jugend-  JJnierricht  in  alien  Stdnden. 
8vo.    Stuttgart.     $2.00 

H.  Beyer's  Bibliothek  padagogischer 
Classiker.  Saminlung  der  hedeuf&iid- 
sten  pddagog isclien  Schriften  dlierer 
und  neuerer  Zeit.  TTnter  Mitn-irkung 
mehrerer  Schuhndnner  und  Gelehrten 
neu  hrsg.  v.  Fudk.  Mann.  Parts  1—98. 
8vo.    Langeasalza.    Each  .$0.20 

Dictionnaire  de  Pedagogie  et  d' Instruc- 
tion Primaire.  Redige  par  T.  Blusson. 
Parts   1—85.    8vo.     Paris.    Each  $0.20 

Now  in  progress  of  publication  in  parts 
The  work  will  prob.ably  comprise  !iix  volumes 
of  about  1000  pages  each,  and  will  be  the  most 
valuable  of  Its  kind  ever  publis'ied.  Contains 
a  bibliography  of  French  educational  works. 

Adf.  Diesterweg's  Ausgewdhlte  Schriften, 
hrsg.  V.  Edc.  Langknbekg.  8vo.  4  "vols. 
Frankfurt  a.  M.    $5.50 

F.  A.  W.  Diesterweg.  Wegu-eiser  zur 
Bildung  filr  deutsche  Lelirer.  In  nener 
zeitgemdsser  Bearbeitung  hrsg.  ran  dern 
Curatorium  der  Bieslenreg  -Stifiung. 
8vo.   3  vols.    Essen.     $7.70 

Education  and  General  Philology.  A 
Classified  Descriptive  Catalogue  of 
American,  British,  German,  French, 
and  other  Foreign  Publications  on 
Education  and  General  Philologij:  to- 
gether with  Works  of  Beference,  Teach- 
ers'' Hand- Books,  etc.,  exclusive  of  Text- 
Books.  Edited  by  E.  Steigek.  8vo.  N. 
Y.  $0.10  net. 

Encyclopadie  d.  gesammten  Erziehungs- 
nnd  ITnterrichtswesens,  hearhi'ilct  ran 
einer  AnzaJd  Snlmhinuiner  loid  (ieh'hr- 
ten,  hrsg.  xiuter  Mitu-irkung  v.  Palmer 

U.  WiLDERMUTH,  V.  K.  A.  SCHillD.     8vO. 

11  vols.    Gotha.  $55,75 


H.  Kiddle  and  A.  J.  Schem.  The  Cyclo-^ 
paidia  of  Education:  A  Dictionary  0/ 
Information  for  the  use  of  Teachers, 
School  Officers,  Parents,  and  Others. 
8vo.  N.  Y.  Cloth.  $5.00.  Sheep.  $G.00 
An  educational  library  in  itself,  invaluable 

to  every  progressive  teacher. 

T/te  Dictionary  of  Education  and 

Instruction;  A  Beference  Book  and 
Manual  on  the  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching,  fw  the  use  of  Parents, 
Teachers,  and  Others;  based  upon  the 
Gijclopoidia  of 'Education.  12mo.  N.  Y. 
cloth.    $1.50 

The    Year  Book  of  Education  for 

1878.     8vo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $2.00 

—  TliC   Year  Book  of  Education  for 

1870.     8vo.    N.  Y.     Cloth.     $2.00 

Padagogische  Bibliothek.  Sammlung 
der  vnchtigslen  pddagogischen  Schrif- 
ten dlterer  und  neuerer  Zeit.  Itn  Yer- 
ein  mit  Gesinnungsge7iosse7i  h7'sg.  v. 
K.  RicHTER.  8vo.  Farts  1—93.  Leip- 
zig.    Each  $0.20 

Real-Encyclopadie  des  Erziehungs-  nnd 
tTnterrichtswesens  nach  katholischen 
Princijiien.  Vnter  Mitu-irkung  von 
geistlichen  und  u-eltlichen  Schulmdn- 
nern  filr  Geistliche,  Yolksschullehrer, 
Eltern  xind  Erzieher  bearbeitet  von  H. 
Roi-Fus  u.  A.  Pfistek.  8vo.  4  vols. 
Maiuz.  $10.30 
A.    Schmid.      Pddagngisches  Hand- 


K 

buck  filr  das  ffaiis,  die  ^'(llks-,  Burger- 
Mittel-  und  Fortbilduug-^scJiule.  Auf 
Grundlage  der  ^^Encyclopadie  des  ge- 
sammten Erziehungs-  und  Zl^nterrichts- 
u-esens"  in  alphabet ischer  Ordnvng  be- 
arbeitet.    8vo.     2  vols.    Gotha.   $8.45 

"  A  vast  mine  of  information  on  everything 

connected  with  education  ".  Quick. 

G.  E.  Schott.  Handbuch  der  Pddagogi- 
schen Literatur.  Svo.  3  Parts.  Leip- 
zig.   $2.20 

Steiger's  Educational  Directo^-y  for  1878. 
Svo.  N.  Y.   Limp  Cloth.     $1.50 

August  VoetpL  Systematische  Encyclo- 
pddie  dir'Pddagogik.  Ein  Wegireiser 
dwell,  das  gesa'uiiiite  Gebief  der  Erzic- 
hnng.  Mil  aio^fdhrlicher  Angahe  der 
Literatur.     Svo.    Eisenach,  $l'.50 

301 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTEUCTION 


.  II.  ALLIED  SCIENCES. 

Anthropology,    Ethnology,    Ethics,     Linguistics,    Metaphysics, 
Psychology,   Physiology,   Sociology,  Political  Economy. 


John  Abercrombie.  The  PJdlosophy  of 
the  Moral  Feelings,  edited  and  adapted 
to  (lie  use  of  schools  by  Jacob  Abbott. 
Umo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $U.90 

Inquiries  concerninq  the  Intellectual 

Foicers,  edited  and  adapted  to  the  use 
of  schools  by  Jacob  Abbott.  12mo. 
X.  Y.     Cloth.     $0.90 

Aristotle.  TJie  Bheloric  and  Poetics, 
and  Xiconiachean  Ethics.  Bohn's  trans- 
lations. 2  vols.  London.  Cloth.  Each 
$2.00 

Alexander  Bain.  The  Senses  and  the  In- 
tellect.   8vo.    N.  Y.    $5.00 


—  Mind  and  Body.  Tlie  Theories  of  Joseph  Marie  de  Gerando.  lU^toire 
their  Eelation.  12mo.  N.  Y.  Cloth.  ,,(,,•,'(■  dv^  ^ii^t'infi^  de  iihUnxonhie 
$1.50  ■ 


The  Emotions  and  the  Will.      8vo 

N.  Y.    Cloth.     S5.00 

S.  P.  Bates.  Lectures  on  Mental  and 
Moral  Culture.  12nio.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
$1.50 

Fr.  E.  Beneke.  The  Elements  of  Psy 
choloqy,  on  the  I'riiiciples  of  Beneke, 
Stated  and  Illustrated  in  a  Sinqjle  and 
Poi)ular  Manner  by  G.  Raue.  Fourth 
ed.  by  JouANN  Gotti.ikb  Dkk.sslku. 
T)-anslaled  from  the  German.  Svo. 
Oxford.  Cloth.  $3.00 
Commended  by  Dr.  Donaldson, 

Julius  H.  Bernstein.  Tlie  Five  Senses 
of  Man.    12mo.    N.  Y.     Cloth.    $1.75 

H.  T.  Buckle.  History  of  Cicilization  in 
Fnqland.  With  a  complete  Index. 
2  vols.    Svo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.00 

S.  Butler.  Unconscious  Memory:  .1 
Comparison  belirecn  the  Theory  of  Dr. 
KwAi.n  and  "Tlie  Philosophy  of  tlie 
Unconditioned'^  of  \h\  Kdwaki)  v.  Haut- 
MANN.  With  translntinns  from  thesf 
Authors,  and  Preliminary  Chapter.^ 
bearing  on  Life  and  Habit,  Ecohition 
Old  and  N'ew,  and  Mr.  Ciiakles  Dau- 
win's  edition  of  Dr.  Kiiatsk'.s  "Eras- 
mns  Daricin."'  8vo.  Loudon.  Cloth. 
$:}.(I0 

W.  B.  Carpenter.    Principles  of  llmnan 
Fhi/.'tiolugi/.   Ill/  H.  PowKK.    8vo. 
trati'd.     London.     $11.20 

Tlie  same.     New  American  from  8tli 

London   ed.      lllustr.      Svo.      Philadel- 
phia.   Cloth.    $5.50    Leather.    $0.50 


T.  Coleridge.     Aids  to  Reflection  in  the 
Foundation   of   a    Manly    Character. 
12mo.     Loudon.     Cloth.    $2.10 
12mo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.50 

And.  Combe.  The  Principles  of  Physi- 
ology applied  to  the  Preservation  of 
Health,  and  the  Improvement  of  Phy- 
sical and  Mental  Education.  Illustr. 
l8mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $0.75 

Victor  Cousin.  Course  of  the  History  of 
Modern  Philot^ophy.  2  vols.  12mo. 
N.  Y.     Cloth.    $4.00 

F.  W.  Farrar.     Chapters  on  Language. 
London.     Cloth.     $2.80 

com- 
con- 
^rl'^■  rekitirement  an.r  principes  des 
connaissances  humaines.  2e  partie: 
Histoire  de  la  philosophie  moderne  a 
parlir  de  la  renaissance  des  lettres  jus- 
qiCa  la  fin  du  18.  Steele.  4  vols.  8vo. 
Paris.    $8.0) 

F.  Guizot.  Ilit'-lory  of  Civilization.  2  vols. 
12mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.    $4.00 

3  vols.    London.    Cloth.    $3.76 

E.  Haeckel.  Freedom  in  Scie7ice  and 
Teaching.     12mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.  $1.00 

H.  Hallam.  Introduction  to  the  Litei'a- 
ttire  of  Europe  in  the  Fifteenth,  Six- 
teentli,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.  2 
vols.     8vo.     N.Y.     Cloth.     $2.50 

A  Vieu^  of  the  State  of  Europe  during 

the  Middle  Ages.    2  vols.     Svo.     N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $2..50 

W.  Hamilton.     Lectures,  embracing  the 
Metaphysical     and    Logical    (hurses. 
2  vols.     Svo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $7.00 
The    best   system    of  psychology,   for   the 

scientific   study  of  education,  with  which  I  am 

acquainted. 

Mark    Hopkins.      An  Outline  Study  of 

Man.     12mo.     N.  Y.    Cloth.     $1.75 
W.  S.  Jevons.     Elementarq   Lessons   in 

Logic,  Deductive  and  luiluctive.    16mo. 

Loiidon.     (loth.     $0.00 
The  Principles  of  Science.  A  Treatise 

on  Logic  and  Scientific  Method.     Svo. 

London.     Cloth.     $2.75 
Krauth- Fleming.      Vocabulary    of    the 

I'hihiSDjiliii'dl  Sciences.     12nio.     N.  Y. 

Cloth.     $3.5(1 
Invahiable   to   students  of  philosopliy  and 
educational  science. 


THE  DICTIONAEY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


Albert  Lemoiue.  L' Habitude  et  V  In- 
stinct. Etude  de  Psychologie  Comparee. 
IGmo.     Paris.    $0.90 

Q.  H.  Lewes.  Problems  of  Life  and  Mind. 
.5  vols.    8vo.     Boston.     Cloth.  $U.OO 

Physiology  of  Common  Life.  12mo. 

2  vols.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $3.00 

Sir  John  Lubbock.  The  Origin  of  Civ- 
ilization; and  the  Prirniiice  Condition 
of  Man.     12mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $2.00 

J.  M'Cosh.  Intuitiojis  of  the  Mind,  in- 
ductively investigated.  8vo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $3.00 

H.  Longueville  Mansel.  Metapliysics; 
or,  the  Philosophy  of  Consciousness, 
Phenomenal  and  Beat.  12mo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.    $1.75 

C.  Marcel.  T/ie  Study  of  Languages 
brought  Jiack  to  its  true  Principles. 
12mo.    N.  Y.     Clotli.    $1.25 

H.  Maudsley.  The  Physiology  and  Path- 
ology of  the  Mind.  8vo.  2  vols.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $4.00 

Body  and  Mind:  an  Inquiry  into 

their  Connection  and  Mutual  Influence 
especially  in  reference  to  Mental  Dis- 
orders. With  Appendix.  12mo.  N.  Y 
Cloth.     $1.50 

J.  8.  Mill.  A  System  of  Logic.  8vo 
N.  Y.     Cloth.    $3.00 

G.  Moore.  Power  of  the  Soul  over  the 
Body,  in  relation  to  Health  and  Morals 
12mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.00 


J.  D.  Morell.  History  of  Modern  Phi- 
losophy.    8vo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.     $3.50 

Noab  Porter.  Tlie  Human  Intellect.  8vo. 
N.  Y.     Cloth.    $5.00 

J.  Ray.  Mental  Hygiene.  16mo.  Boston. 
Cloth.     $1.50 

H.    Spencer.     The  Studx/  of  Sociology. 

12mo.     N.Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 
W.  Thomson.     Outline  of  the  necessary 

Laws  of  Thought.  12mo.  N.  Y.    Cloth. 

$1.50 
One  of  the  best  introductions  to  logic. 

R.  C.  Trench.  On  the  Study  of  Words. 
12mo.    N.  Y.  Cloth.    $1.25 

F.  Wayland.  The  Elements  of  Political 
Economy.  12mo.  N.  Y.  Cloth.  $1.75 
—  Abridgment  for  schools  and  acade- 
mies.    IGino.    N.  Y.     Cloth.    $0.70 

Richard  Whately.  Elements  of  Logic. 
12mo.    N.  Y.     Cloth.     S0.75 

W.  D.  Whitney.  The  Life  and  Growth 
of  Language.  12mo.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
$1.50 

G.  Wilson.  The  Five  Gate-inays  of 
Knowledge.     12mo.     London.    $0.40 

R.  S.  Wyld.      Physics   and  Philosophy 

of  the  Senses.     12iiio.    London.     Cloth. 

($3.00)  reduced  to  $1.50 
E.  L.  Youmans.     The  Culture  demanded 

by  Modern  Life.     12mo.    N.  Y.    Cloth. 

$2.00 


III.  GENERAL  EDUCATION. 

Philosophy  of  Education.  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  (Peda- 
gogy and  Didactics).  Special  Didactics.  Home  Education  and 
Self-Education. 


1.  Philosophy  of  Education. 

Alexander  Bain.  Education  as  a  Science. 

12mo.     X.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.75 
"Si^nalons  au   premier  rang  les  essais  de 
Viedagogie  psychologique,  les  articles  recemment 
piiblies  par  M.  Bain."  Compayrc. 

A    text-bouk  in  the  Science  of  Teaching,   in 
the  University  of  Michigan. 

F.  A.  P.  Barnard.  Early  Mental  Train- 
ing, and  Henfrey's  Lecture  on  the 
Educational  Claims  of  Botanical 
Science,  contained  in  "  Tlie  Culture  de- 
manded by  Modern  Life'".  By  E.  L. 
YouMANS.    12mo.    N.  Y.  Cloth.    $2.00 


H.  Barnard.  English  Pedagogy  —  Old 
and  Xew:  or,  Treatises  and  Thoughts 
on  Education,  the  School,  and  the 
Teacher.  First  Series:  Ascham  to 
Wotton.  —  Second  Series:  Arnold  to 
Wolsey.  8vo.  Hartford.  Cloth.  Eacli  $3.50 

Amei-ican  Pedagogy:  Contributions 

to  the  Principles  and  Methods  of  Edu- 
cation.   Svo.     Hartford.    Cloth.    $3.50 

Ge}-man    Pedagogy :      Views    of 

German  Educators  and  Teachers 
on  the  Principles  of  Education,  and 
Methods  of  Instruction  for  Schools  of 
different  Grades.  8vo.  Hartford.  Clotii. 
$3.50 

303 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


H.  Barnard.     Aphoi'isms  atid   Sugges- 
tions on  Education  and  Methods  of  In- 
struction—Ancient and  Modern.    8vo. 
Hartford.     Cloth.    $3.00 
These  books,  and  others  that  will  be  named, 

are   republished    from   Barnard's    A/nen'caK 

Journal  pf  Education,   a  periodical  that  can 

nut  be  too  highly  commended. 

E.  Barth.     IJeher  den  Umgang.    Beitrag  \ 


zur    Sclndpddagogik.      bvo.      Laiigeii 

salza.    $0.5.) 
G.    Baur.      GrundzUge  der  Erziehungs- 

Lehre.    8vo.    Giesseu.    $2.20 
Beesau's    Spirit:-,  of  Education.     12mo. 

Syracuse.     Cloth.    $1.25 
F.  E.  Beneke.     Erziehungs-  und    Unter- 

richtsletire.    Neu  bearht'itef  und  mit  Zit- 

sdtzen  verseUen  v.  J.  C.  Dkessleu.  Svo. 

2  vols.    Berlin.    $4.40 
C.  W.  Bennett.  Education  Abroad.  12iuo. 

Syracuse.     $0.25 
C.Beyer.    ErzieJtung  zur  Vemuuft.   Plii- 

losojilii^rli  -  padagogische   Grundlinien 

fur  Erzichnug   und    Uuterricltt.      8vo. 

Wien.    $1.10 
J.  S.  Blackie.    On  Education.   8vo.  Lon- 
don.   $0.40 
Ernst    Bohme.     Des  Sohnes  Erziehung. 

Pddagngische  Briefe  an  eine  Mutter. 


Johann  Amos  Comenius.  Grosse  Unto-- 
richtslehre.  Aus  dem  Lateinischen  iXher- 
setzt  und  mit  Anmerkungen  versehen 
von  Jl'.  BeeOiEK  und  Fri.  "Zuubek.  8vo. 
Leipzig.    $1.30 

"As  a  school  reformer  he  was  the  forerunner 

of  Rousseau,    Basedow,    and   Pestalozzi,    sug- 

d   a   mode    of  instruction   which   renders 

ng  attractive  to  children   by  pictures  and 


ruiiagogisciie  urieje  a 
Vlnw'.     Dresden.     $0.85 


K.  Bormann.  Vet)er  Erziehung  und  Un 
terricht.    Svo.    Leipzig.     $1.10 

I'ddagogik fdrVoiksscliutlehrer,  auf 

Grund  der  aligemeinen  Bestimniuugen 
vom  15.  October  1872,  hetreft'end  da.". 
Volhs^chul-,  Frdparanden-  und  Seini- 
naru-esen,  hearheitet.  Svo.  Berlin.  $1.50 

W.  Braubach.  Fu)idamcntallehre  der 
Fddagitgik  oder  Beqrilndung  dei'seiben 
zu  einer  .'^trengen  ^Mssenschaft.  8vo 
Giessen.    $0.00 

Buell's  Elements  of  Education.  12nio. 
Syracuse.     $0.15 

E.  H.  Clarke.  The  Building  of  a  Brain. 
IGmn.    Boston.    Cloth.    $1.25 

Si'.r  in  Education.     A  fair  Chance 

for  Girls.    IGnio.   Boston.   Cloth.  $1.2.)j 

G.  Combe.  On  Education.  12ino.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $5.00 

Johann  Amos  Comenius.  Pddagogische 
Schriftcn.  I'l'hi'rsiizt  und  mil  Anmer- 
kungen und  des  Comenius  Biographic 
ver!<chen  ran  Tu.  Lion.  IGmo.  Langen- 
salza.    $1.10 

— , —  Ausgeu-iihlte  Schriften.  Mutter- 
schtde,  I'itnsophie,  Pangnosie,  etc. 
Uehersetzl  und  mit  Erluuterunqen  ver- 
sehen von  Jl'.  BEE(iER  IDid  .).  Lei't- 
BEciiEK.  8vo.  Leipzig.  $1.10 
30-i 


llustrations,    and     wrote     the     first    pictorial 

scliool-book".  A'tit;  Amer.  Cyclopiedia. 

W.  J.  G.  Curtmann.  Lelirhueh  der  Er- 
ziehung und  des  UnteiTichts.  8vo. 
2  vols.    Leipzig.    $2.80 

B.  G.  Denzel.  Einleitung  in  die  Erzie- 
hungs- und  VnterricJitsichre  fur  Volks- 
schidh'hrer.  Svo.  3  vols.  With  5  plates. 
Stuttgart.     $4.00 

Frdr.  Dittes.  Grundriss  der  Erziehungs- 
und  Unterrichtslehre.  Svo.  Leipzig. 
$1.10 

Melhodik  der  Volksschule.    Aufge- 

schichtlicker  Grundlage.  Svo.  Leipzig. 
$1.35 

Scliule  der  Pddagogik.     Gesammt- 

Ausqahe  der  Fsychologie  und  Logik, 
Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre,  Me- 
thodik  der  Volksschule,  Geschichte  dei' 
Erziehung  -und  des  Unterrichts.  Svo. 
Leipzig.    $3.70 

J.  Donaldson.  Lectures  on  Education  in 
Prussia  and  England.  8vo.  Edin- 
burgh.   Cloth.    $1.40 

Mrs.  E.  B.  DufPey.  Xo  Sex  in  Education: 
or  an  c<iu(d  chance  for  both  bnt/s  and 
gir/s.  ICnio.  Philadelphia.  Clotli.  $1.00 

F.  A.  Ph.  Dupanloup.  J>e  V Education. 
Svo.    3  vols.    Paris.    $3.50 

Die  Erziehung.    A^is  dem.  Franzo- 

sischen  Cdicrsctzt.  Svo.  3  vols.  Mainz.  $4.25 

R.  L.  and  M.  Edgeworth.  Treatise  on 
Practicid  Education.  12mo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.    $1.50 

Edward  Everett.  Importance  of  Prac- 
tical Education  and  Useful  Knnu-lcdge: 
being  a  Selection  from  his  Orations  and 
other  Discourses.  \2mo.  N.Y.  Cloth. $1.50 

F.  W.  Farrar.  Essaijs  on  a  Liberal 
Ednratiiin.    Svo.  London.  Cloth.  $3.00 

J.  Foster.  Essags  on  the  EvUs  of  popidar 
Ignorance.   Vlnw.    N.  Y.   Cloth.    $1.25 

0.  S.  Fowler.  Education  and  Self-Im- 
proi^ement.  Illustr.  12mo.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
$3.50 

A.  H.  Francke.  Schriften  ilber  Erzie- 
hung Und  Unterricht.  Bearbeitet  und 
mil  Erlduterungen  versehen  von  Kahi. 
RicHTEK.  Svo.  2  vols.  Laugensalza. 
$2.20 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTEUCTION 


Th.  Fritz.    Esquisse  (JCun  systeme  complet  Ph.  Gilb.  Hamerton 

cV ListrucHon  et  d  Education  et  de  levr 

Idntoire,  8vo.  3  vols.  Strasbourg.  $4.50 
H.    Grafe.    Allgemeine  Fddagogik.     In 

drei  Buchern.    8vo.    2  vols.    Leipzig. 

$4.40 
Deutsche  Tolksschule,  oder  die  Bur- 
ger- u.  Landschule  nach  der  Gesammt- 

heit  Hirer    YerhMuhiie.      Xehst    einer 

Geschichte  der  ViilksKchnlc.   Ein  Hand 

buch  filr  Lehrer    und   .ScJndaitf setter. 

JVeu  hearheitet  von  J.    Chr.  Gottlob 

Schumann.    8vo.    3  vols.    Jena.    $5.35 
Frdr. Froebel.  Gesammelte pMagogische 

Sctiriflen.    Hrsg.  v.  Wich.  Lange.    8vo. 

2  vols,  ill  3  divisions.    Berlin.     $8.80 
Separately: 
I.    1.  Aus  iFroebeVs  Lehen  und  em- 
stem  Streben.  Autobiographie  und  k!ei- 

nere  Schriften.    With  portrait.    $2.60 
I.    2.  Ideen  Froebel's  iiber  die  Men- 

scJienerziehung  und  Aufsdtze  verschie- 

denen  Inhalts.     With  3  plates.     $2.95 


II.  Die  Pddagogik  des  Kindergar 
tens.  Gedanken  F.  Froebel's  iiber  das 
Spiel  und  die  Spielgegenstdnde  des  Kin- 
des.  With  4  pages  of  music  and  1(5 
plates.  $3.30 
John  Gill.  Systems  of  Education:  A 
Histnni  and  'Criticisia  of  ttie  Princi- 
ples, Sletliods,  Organization  and  Moral 
Discipline  Advocated  by  Eminent  Ed 


The  Intellectual 
Life.    8vo.    Boston.    Cloth.     $2.00 
Part    III.      (Of    Education)     is    especially 
valuable. 

Higher   Education.    12mo.    N.    Y. 

Cloth.    $1.00 

Elizabeth  Hamilton.  letters  on  the  Ele- 
mentary Principles  of  Education. 
32mo.     2  vols.    London.     Cloth.    $l.GO 

Sir  William  Hamilton.  Discussions  on 
Philosophy  and  Literature,  Education 
and  University  lieform.  8vo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $3.00 

Contains  the  famous  essay  on  the  value  of 
mathematical  studies. 

John  Hecker.  Scientific  Basis  of  Edu- 
cation.    8vo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.     $2.50 

J.  F.  Herbart.  Fadagogische  Schriflcn 
in  chronologischer  lieihenfolge.  Hisg. 
V.  0.  WiLLiiANN.  8vo.  'i  vols.  Leip- 
zig.    $.5.50 

Harm.  Hoffmeister.  Comenius  und  Pes- 
ialozzi  als  Jlegr  Uncer  der  Volksschule. 
8vo.     Beiliu.     $0.55 

Examen-Kateclrismus.  III.  Fdda- 
gogik. Ein  liepetitionsbuchjur  Abitu- 
rienten,  Schidamts-Caudidaten  und  As- 
piranten  der  MiitelschuUehrer-  und 
Rector atspr'ufung.    8vo.    Berlin.    $0.95 

F.  D.  Huntington.    Unconscious  Tuition. 
I'Jnio.     Syracuse.     $0.15 
This  essay  is  an  educational  classic. 


canonists.    8vo.    London.    Cloth.  $1.00  Thos.  H.  Huxley.    Lay  Sei-mons,    Ad- 


J.  B.  Graser.  Dirinitat  oder  das  Prin- 
cip  der  einzig  n-ahrcn  Menschenerzie- 
hung  zurfesten  Begriindnng^  der  Erzie- 
hungs-  und  JJnterrichtsunssenschaft. 
8vo.    2  vols.    Bayreuth.     $3. GO 

A.  W.  Grube.  Fadagogische  Stndien 
und  KritikenfiXr  Lehrer  und  Erzieher. 
Verniischte  Aufsdtze  aus  den  Jahren 
1845— 18G0.     8vo.     Leipzig.     $1.65 

Xeue  Folge.    Siudien  imd  Kri- 

tiken  fur  Pddagogen  und  Theologen 
8vo.    Leipzig.    SO. 75 

Yon  der  sittUchen  Bildung  der  Ju 

gend  im  ersten  Jahrzehend  des  Lebens. 
Fadagogische  Skizzen  filr  Ettern,  Leh- 
rer, etc,    8vo.    Leipzig.     $0.75 

Blicke   in's   Triehleben    der    Seele. 

Psychologische  Studien  filr  angehende 
Pddagogen  und  Psychologen,  u-ie  auch 

fur  gebudete  Ydter  und  Freunde  der 
^ Seelenkunde  iiberhaupt.  8vo.  Leipzig. 
$1.10 

W.  N.  Kallmann.  Lectures  on  Educa- 
tion.    12mo.    Milwaukee.     $0.25 

Erziehungs-Grundsidze  fur  Schrde 

und  Haus.     12iuo.     Milwaukee.     $0.25 


dresses  and  Fevieus.  12mo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $1.75 

Imm.  Kant.  Uebe?-  Fddagogik.  Mil  Ein- 
leitung  und  Anmei-kxingen  von  Otto 
WiLLMANN.     8vo.    Leipzig.     $0.40 

Jos.  Kehrein.  HandJmch  der  Erziehung 
und  des  Vnferrichtes  zundchst  fiir  Se- 
minarziiglinge  und  ElenientarleJirer. 
Xach  dem  fade  des  Yerfassers  bearbei- 
beitet  V.  A.  Kellek.  8vo.  Paderboru. 
$1.00 

L.  Kellner.  Kurze  Geschichte  der  Erzie- 
hung und  des  Untenichtes  mil  vonral- 
iender  Bilcksicht  auf  das  Yolksschul- 
u-esen.     8vo.     Essen.     $0.75 

—  Zur  Pddagogik  de)-  Schule  mid  des 
Haiises.  Aphorisinen,  Schulaufaehern, 
Lehrern  und  Eltern  gewidmet.  8vo. 
Essen.    $0.70 

—  Yolksschulknnde.  Ein  Hand-  und 
Hulfshuch  fiir  hdholische  Se7ninare, 
Lefa-erundSctiulaufselier.  8vo.  Essen. 
$1.10 

—  Die  Pddagogik  der  Yolksschule  und 
des  Hauses  in  Apliorismen.  8vo.  Esscu. 
$0.55 

305 


THE  DICTIONARY  OP  EDUCATION  AND  INSTllUCTION 


L.  Kellner.  Padagogische  Mittheilungen 
aus  den  (rphieten  der  Srhule  und  dcs  I.c- 
beits.  MIt  hcaonderer  liuck^iclit  (iiifdif 
Furthililiing  dcr  Vulks><chnlle/i.rer  in  dcii 
Coiiferenzen.  8vo.  2  parts.  Essen.  $1.51) 

Frdr.  Korner.  Unterrlchts-  und  Erzie 
hnngskunst  nach  j)hi/siologisch-pftijclio- 
logisuhen  Gesetzen  wid  den  Forderun- 
gea  des  Cu'.tuiiehens.  FUr  Fltern,  Leh- 
rer  and  Freunde  einer  zeitgemd.'^sen 
Volksh'dduiig.    8vo.     Pressbur.^'.     $2.7') 

Ernst  Laas.  Die  PddagngUc  des  Johannes 
Sturm.  Historisch  und  kritisch  heleuch 
let.     8vo.     Berlin.     $0.75 

Wich.  Lange.  Kiii_i<<iie)i,  BliUhen  und 
Fruclde  erzlehlichen  S/rehens.  I'lidagog 
isc/ieAnregnngen.  xyo.  Haiiiliurjir.  $1,115 

Emile  de  Laveleye.  L^ Instruction  du 
I'eiiple.    8vo.     Paris.    $2.50 

G.  E.  Lessing.  The  Education  of  the  JIu 
man  Race.  Trans!ated  by  F.  M.  llon- 
EiiTSON.     8vo.     Loudon.      Cloth. 

J.  Leutbecher.  Joh.  Amos  Comenius'' 
Lehrknnsl.     8vo.     Leipzig.     $0.45 

John  Locke.  Some  Tlio^ights  concerning 
Education.  With  Ldroduction  and 
Notes  bij  Rev.  R.  H.  Quick.  12mo 
Cambridge.     $1.40 

"Almost  all  the  influence  which  England 
has  h.id  on  the  theory  of  Education  must  be 
attributed  to  Locke  alone."  Quick. 

L.  C.  Loomis.   Ment<d  and  Social  Culture. 

12nio.     N.  Y.     Clotli.     $0.75 
Horace  Mann.     Tlioughts  selected  from 

the  writings  of  lloiiACE  M.VN.v.    i2mo. 

Boston.    Cloth.     $1.25 
Lectures  and  Annual  lieports  on 

Education.   8vo.    Boston.    Cloth.    $:i.00 

As  an  exposition  of  a  body  of  sound  public 

school   doctrine,    these   lectures  are  imequaled 

in  tlic  whole  r.in£;e  of  our  eduratioii.Tl  literature. 

E.  D.  Mansfield.  American  Education. 
Vlmo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 

T.  Markby.  Praclicnl  Essays  on  Edu- 
calinn.     8v().     London.     Cloth.    S2.0I) 

Ira  Mayhew.  Unicers(d  Educafiun:  Its 
^feans  and  Ends.  12ino.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
SI. 75 

J.Milton.  Treatise  of  Education.  21nio. 
X.  V.    $0.25 

M.  de  Montaigne.  Works.  Comprising 
Ills  fi.sY/)/.s,  Journeii  into  Italy,  and 
Letters:  u-ith  Notes  from  all  the  Com- 
mentators, Biograpliicdl  and  liihliogra- 
phical  Notices,  etc.,  hij  \V.  IL\/,Ln'T. 
8vo.  Philadelphia.  Chith.  $.'?.50 
(Paternal    Affection;    against    Idleness;  of 

Lyars;  of  Pedantry;  Custom  and  Law;  of  the 

Education  ofChiklren;  of  Anger.) 

"An  admirable  resume  of  all  that  has  been 

settled  in  regard  to  educational  aims  up  to  the 

present  time."         CycloJ/ccdia  of  Education. 

306 


A.  Oppler.  Tlvree  Lectures  on  Education, 
delivered  before  the  College  of  Precep- 
tors. Revised  and  enlarged.  8vo.  Lon- 
don.    Cloth.    $1.80 

Joseph  Payne.  Tlie  Science  and  Art  of 
Education.  12nio.  N.  Y.  Paper.  $0.15; 
Cloth.   $0.40 

Lectu7-es  on  the  Science  and  Art  of 

Education,  icUh  other  Lectures  and 
E.'isaijs.  Edited  by  JosErii  F.  Pay.nk. 
With  an  Introduction  by  Rev.  R.  IL 
Quick.  8vo.  Portrait.  London.  Cloth. 
$:5.()0 

Joseph  Payne  was  one  of  the  first  educa- 
tors of  this  century;  and  this  volume  is  one  of 
the   most  valuable   contributions  ever  made  to 
ijur  educational  literature. 
J.  H.  Pestalozzi's  SilmmtlicheWerke.  Oe- 

sichlet,  verrollsldndigt  und  niit  erldu- 

tcrnden  Einleitnngen  versehen  v.  L.  W. 

Sevffaktu.  bvo.  18  vols.  Brandenburg. 

$i;!.45 

Ausgeu-dldte  Werke.  Mit  Pestaloz- 
zi's Biographic  hrsg.  v.  Fkdk.  Man.v. 
8vo.    4  vols.     Langensalza.     $2.75 

Eienhard  und  Certrud.     Ein  Buck 

fur  das  Yolk.  IGmo.  Leipzig.  $0.40; 
Cloth.     iO.OO 

Auszng  in  einem  Bands.     Von 

L.  W.  Seyffaktu.    8vo.   Brandenburg. 

$0.00 

Wie  Gertrud  ihre  Kinder  lehrt.  Mit 

einer  Einleitung:  Joltannlleinrich  Pes- 
talozzVs  Leben,  Werke  und  Grund- 
siitze.  Einleilung  und  Commentar  v. 
K.  RiEDEL.     8vo.     Li.'ipzig.     $0.75 

Mrs.  A.  H.  L.  Phelps.  The  Educator;  or, 
Hours  u-illi  my  Pupils.  12nio.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $1.50 

W.  F.  Phelps.  What  is  Education? 
12mo.     N.  V.     Paper.     $0.10 

Richard  Quain.  (hi  .'^(nne  Defects  in  Gen- 
eral Edur<d  ion.  8vo.   N.Y."  Cloth.  $1.25 

A.  W.  Raub.  Plain  Educational  Talk 
u-iJh  Teachers  and  Pai-ents.  12mo. 
Philadelphia.     Cloth.    $1.50  \ 

HuiTo  Reid.  Elementary  Treatise  on 
Principles  of  Education.  12ino.  Lon- 
don.    $2.00 

Ernest  Renan.  La  Part  de  la  Famille 
et  dt'  r Flat  dans  V Education.  12nio. 
Paris.     S:).20 

Jean  Paul  F.  Richter.  Lerana,  or,  The 
Doclrinr  of  Edncation.  12ino.  Boston. 
Cloth.     $2.0(1 

Padaero^ische  Bibliothek.  Sammlung  der 
uiiclitigslen  pddigogischen.  Schriften  i'd- 
terer  und  neuerer  Zeit.  Hrsg.  v.  Ivaki. 
RicHTEU.  8vo.  Parts  1—9:5.  Leipzig. 
Each  $0.20 
(I.  Pestalozzi;  IL  Salzmann;  IM.  Comenius; 

IV.    Montaigne,   Rabelais;    V.    VI,    Francke; 


THE  DICTIONAEY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


VII.  Pestalozzi;  VIII.  Rousseau;  IX.  Locke; 
X.  Kant:  XI.  Comenius;  XII.  Campe;  XIII. 
XIV.  Herbart;  XV.  Salzmann;  XVI.  Vives.) 
G.   A.  Riecke.     Evziehungslehre.      8vo. 

Stuttgart.     $1.55 
Carl  Rosenkranz.     TAe  Science  of  Edu- 
cation; or.  Pedagogics  as  a  System. 
Translated  from  the  German  by  Anna 
C.  Bkackett.    8vo.    St.  Louis.     Paper. 
$1.00;  Cloth.  SI. 50 
The  text-book  in  the  department  of  Peda- 
gogics in  the  University  of  Missouri. 

Bie  Pddagogik  als  System.     Eiu 

Grundriss.    8vo.     Konigsherg.    II  35 

J.  J.  Rousseau.  Evnil,  oder  TJeber  die  Er- 
ziehuug.  Deutsch  vou  H.  Denhaki>t. 
IGmo.     2  vols.    Leipzig.     Clotli.    $1.10 

Emile,   ou  de  V Education.    16mo- 

Paris.     $1.05 

"Perhaps  the  most  influential  book  ever 
written  on  tue  subject  of  education."    Quick. 

Emilius  and  Sophia;    or,   A  Neir 

System  of  Education.  12mo.  4  vols. 
London.  About  $4.50 

"C'est  de  I'Angleterre  (Locke)  qu'est  venu 
le  premier  germe  de  I'Emile;  c'est  en  Alle- 
magne  que  1'Emile  a  porte  tous  ses  fruits  bons 
ou  mauvais".  CoMPAYRe 

C.  G.  Salzmann.     Koch  etwas  iiher  die 

ErzieJtung.    $0.40.  —  AmeisenhUchlein. 

$0.40.  —  Ueherdie  u-irksamstea  Mattel. 

Kindern  lieUgion  heizubringen.     $0.55 

8vo.     3  parts.     Leipzig.     $1.35 
Frdr.  Schleiermacher.     Erziehungslehre 

Hrsg.  V.  C.  PL.iTZ.  8vo.  Leipzig.  Clotli. 

$1.85 
K.   A.   Schmid.      Ans  Schule   und   Zeit 

Beden  und  Aufsdtze.  8vo.  Gotlia.  $1.50 

Padagogisches   Handbuch  fur  daf 

Ilaus,  die  Yolks-,  BiXrger-,  Miltel- 
und  Forthildiuigsxrh'de.  Auf  Grund- 
lage  der  Encyliojxidie  des  gesamndeu 
Erziehungs-  und  Uuterrichtswesens  in 
alphabetischer  Ordnung  hearbeitet.  8vo. 
2  vols.     Gotlia.     $10.65 

C.  Chr.  G.  Schmidt.  Ueber  Erziehung. 
Kach  den  Aussprilchen  der  heiUgen 
thrift,  den  Werken  Jean  Paid's, 
ScMeiermacher's  u.  A.,  sovie  nach  n- 
gener  Erfahrung.    8vo.    Leipzig.   $0..)5 

K.  Schmidt.  Bnch  der  Erziehung.  Bie 
Gesetze  der  Erziehung  und  des  Untei 
richts,  gegrilndet  auf  die  Naturgeselzc 
des  menschlichen  Leibes  und  Geistes. 
Briefe  an  Eltern,  Leltrer  und  Erzieher. 
With  woodcuts.    8vo.    Cothen.    $2.20 

C.  F.  Schnell.  Zur  Pcidagogik  der  That. 
Praktische  Punkie  der  Erziehung  und 
Bildung,  nehst  Anhaug ,  Schulgeselze 
betreffend.    8vo.    Berlin.    $1.10 


J.  Chr.  Glob.  Schumann.    Leiifaden  der  . 
Pddagogik  fUr  den  Unierricht  in  Leh- 
rerbildungsanstalten,    I.  Bie  systemati- 
sche  Pddagogik  und  die  Scliulkunde. 
8vo.     Hannover.     $0.90 

. II.  Geschiclde  der  Pddagogik. 

$0.90 

Pddagogische  Chrestornathie.    Eine 

AuswuJU  aus  den  pddagogischen  Mei- 
steru-erken  alter  Zeiten  fur  die  pddago- 
gische PrivatlectUre  mit  Einleitungen 
und  Aninerkungen  versehen.  I.  Bie 
pddagogischen  Meisterwei'ke  des  orien- 
ialischen  Allerthums  und  der  alien  Grie- 
clien.     8vo.     Hannover.     $1.10 

L.  Schwenke.  Erziehung  und  TTnterrichi: 
Pddagogische  AussprUche  fur  Eltern, 
Lehrer  und  Erzieher.  8vo.  Leipzig. 
$0.95 

E.  Schwab.  School- Garden:  a  practiced 
contribution  to  the  Subject  of  Education. 
12mo.    N.  Y.     $0.50 

Jules  Simon.  L^Ecoie.  NouveUe  edition 
mise  au  courant  des  dernieres  sta- 
tist iques  et  de  I'etat  actuel  de  la  legis- 
lation.    18nio.     Paris.     $1.25 

La  liiforme  de  Venseignement  se- 

condaire.     18mo.     Paris.     $1.25 

Herbert  Spencer.  Education :  Intel- 
lectual, Moral  and  Physical.  12mo- 
N.  Y.     Cloth.    $1.25 

A  work   of  great   ability,  written  from  the 
laissezfaire  point  of  view.     It   magnifies  the 
part   played  by  Nature   in   education,   but  ob. 
serves   the  influence  of  human  art.     It  is  sug- 
gestive and  worthy  of  study;  but  unless  stu- 
died critically,  it  is  misleading. 
J.    G.   Spurzheim.     Education:    its  Ele- 
ment; Principles  founded  on  NcUure  of 
Man.     12mo.    N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 
Ludwig  Striimpell.    Psychologische  Pd- 
dagogik.    8vo.    Leipzig.    $2.00 
Thos.   Tate.     The  Philosophy  of  Educa- 
tion.    12mo.     London.     Cloth.     $2.60 
G.  Thaulow.     HegeVs  Ansichten  Uber  Er- 
ziehung und  Vnterricld.     8vo.     3  vols. 
Kiel.     $5.20 
D'Arcy  W.  Thompson.     Bay  Breams  of 
a  Schoolnutster.  12nio.  London.  Cloth. 
$2..50 

Wayside    Thoughts  on    Education. 

12mo.     Edinburgh.    Cloth.     $2.40 

E.  Thomson.  Educational  Essays.  Edited 
by  Rev.  D.  W.  Clakk.  12mo.  Cincin- 
nati.    Cloth.     $1.50 

E.  Thring.  Education  and  School.  8vo. 
Loudon.     Cloth.     $1.75 

Isaac  Todhunter.  The  Conflict  of  Stu- 
dies, and.  oilier  Subjects  connected  icith 
Education.  «vo.  Loudon.  Cloth.  $2.5o 
307 


THE  DICTIONAEY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


J.  J.  Wagner.  Philosophie  der  Erzie- 
hnugskHHift.     8vn.     Leipzig.    $1.05 

Th.Waitz.  Mlgvnu-ineradMgorjiknndklei- 
nerc  iiiiddf/o'jlsrlic  Schrij'len.  Hrsg.  v. 
O. Will. MANN.  8vo.  Braunschweig.  $3.70 

F.G.Welch.  Moral,  Tutellectual  and  Phys- 
ical Culture.  121110.  N.  Y.   Cloth.   $1.75 

Wm.  Whewell.     '>/  a  Liberal  Education 

in  General,   and'  nitk  Farticular  lie- 

fereuce  to  the  Leading  Studies  of  the 

Uidcersiig  of  Cambridge.    8vo.    Lon 

don.     Boards.     $2.00 

J.  F.  T.  Wohlfarth.  Padagogisches 
Svhatzkiiatlein.     Svo.     Leii)zig.     $1.10 

T.  Ziller.  Vorlesungen  Uber  allgemeine 
Pddaqngik.     8vo.     Leipzig.     $2.05 

(iru'ndleguug  zur  Lj'hre  V07n  erzie 

henden  Unterricht.  Nach  ihrer  iois 
senschaftlichen  und  praktisch-reforma 
toriachen  Seile  entu-ickelt.  Mil  iSach 
register.    8vo.     Leipzig.     $3.S5 


Henry  Barnard.  English  Pedagogy: 
Education,  The  School  and  TIte  Teach- 
er in  English  Literature.  First  Series. 
8vo.  Hartford.  Cloth.  $3.50  —  Second 
Series.     8vo.    Hartford.     Cloth.     $3.50 

French  Teachers,  Schools  and  Ped- 
agogy —  Old  and  New.  8vo.  Hart- 
ford.    Cloth.     $3.50 

(ierman  Pedagogy:  Education,  The 

School  and    The    Teaclier   in  German 
Literature.  8vo.  Hartford,  (loth.  $3.50 

W.  Bornemann.  Lelirpldnefilr  den.  l"n- 
terricht  in  den  liealien  nehst  niethodi- 
schen  Winken  und  liegeln  filr  sdmmt- 
liclie  Scludsysteme.  8vo.  Kreuznach. 
$0.25 

S.  S.  Boyce.  Hints  toward  a  National 
Culture  for  Young  Anuricans.  12nio. 
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E.  Brooks.  Normal  Methods  of  Teaching. 
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Die  lleqierunq  der  Kinder.    Filr  H.  Calderwood.     On  Teaching:  Its  Ends 


gebildete  Eiiern,  Lehrer  und  Studirende 
bearbeitet.    8vo.    Leipzig.    SO.'JO 

2.  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching 
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J.  Alden.     "utliites  on  Teachinq.     12mo. 

N.  Y.     $0.40 
Roger  Ascham.     The  SchoJemnsfe):  With 
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"I   had   rather  h.->vc  thrown  ten  thousand 
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Dr.  Johnson. 
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of  genius  born  to  create  a  new  era  in  the  his- 
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of  our  native  literature."  D'lSRARLI. 

Ascham's   complete    Works.      Tiino. 

London.     4  vols.     $S.OO 
J.  Baldwin.     Art  of  School  Management. 

121110.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 
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ford.     Clotli.     $3.5(1 

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308 


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J.  Jacotot.  Enseignement  Univefsel.  I. 
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seigneinent  uimersel.  II.  Langue  Ma- 
ternelle.  8vo.  Pans. 
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$1.50 

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Joh.  Heinr.  Pestalozzi.  Wie  Gertrud  ihre 

Kinder  lehrt.    Erlautert  und  mit  An- 

merkungen  verselien  von  Alb.  Eichtee. 

8vo.  Leipzig.   $0.75 
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struction:  eiuhracing  the  Suhjects  usu- 
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309 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


Dav.  Stow.  Training  System  in  Glasgow 
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H.  Strelow.  Be)-  Volksschidlehrer,  nne 
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John  Swett.  Methods  of  Teaching.  A 
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J.  R.  Sypher.  Art  of  Teaching  School: 
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Nature  of  the  Several  Branches  of 
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3.  Special  Didactics. 

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IGmo.     Boston.     Cloth.     $0.00 
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Fravtice.    Vlmo.  Chicago.  Cloth.  $1.7.5 

W.  W.  Davis.     Suggestions  of  Teaching 

Fractions.      IGnio.     Syracuse.     Paper. 

$0.2") 
A.   Douai.    A  Feform  of  the   Common 

Fiiglish  Branches  of  Instruction.  12iuo. 

N.  Y.     Boards.     JO.HO 
J.  G.  Fitch.   TheArt  of  Questioning.  12mo. 

N.  y.     Pa])er.     $0.15 

Wm.  Ellis.  Fducalion  as  a  means  of 
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dition of  u-ell-being  and  tlie  Principles 
and.ipplicalions  of  Economical  Science. 
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L.  T.  Fowler.  Manual  of  Oral  In.itrnc- 
tianfar  Graded  Schools.  4to.  San 
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Ed.  Frankland.  IIouj  to  teach  Chemistry. 
Hints  to  Science  Teachers  and  Studenis. 
Being  the  Substance  of  Six  Lectures 
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istry, June,  ls72.  Summarized  and 
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310 


J.  E.  Frobisher.  Voice  and  Action.  A 
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Thomas  Hill.  TIte  True  Order  of  Studies. 
12nio.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.25 

J.  H.  Hoose.  Studies  in  Articulation. 
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M.  E.  LilienthalandRobt.AUyn.  Things 
Taught:  Sy.slematic  In.tlruction  in 
Composdion  and  Object  Lessons.  16mo. 
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Francis  A.  March.  Mi-thnd  of  Philologic- 
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E.A.Sheldon  and  E.  H.  Barlow.  Teach- 
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I.  Stone.   Tlie  Teacher's  Examiner.  12mo. 
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4.   Home  Education  and  Self 
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Frdi.  Ascher.     Brief e  an  meinen  Sohn. 

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Berlin.    'Cloth.     $1.10 
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Phila.     $0.70 
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Ansu-er    to    the    Questions:    What    to 

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The  n-hole  forming  a  com-ilete  Guide 

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Manchester.     Cloth.     $1.50 
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John  Stuart  BlacMe.  On  Self  Culture, 
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A.  V.  Bohlen.  Das  Buck  der  Mutter  fur 
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F.  Bridges.  Hints  to  Mothers  on  Home 
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J.  F.  Clarke.  Self  Cidture.  Umo.  Boston 

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Weissenfels.     $0.40 
W.  J.  G.  Curtman.     Lehrbuch  der  Erzie 

hung  und  des  JJnterrichis.     Ein  Hand 

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Thos.   DeQuincey.     Lette)-s  to  a  Young 

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8vo.    Dorpat.     $1.65 

G.  Gary  Eggleston.  Hoio  to  Educate 
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H.  Herzog  u.  K.  Schiller.     Das  Kind. 

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illustr.    8vo.     Leipzig.    $4.40 

H.  Martinean.  Household  Education. 
ISnio.     Boston.     Cloth.     $1.25 

J.  McCrie.  Autopmdia;  Personal  Edu- 
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Cloth.    $4.90 

Wm.  Mathews.  Getting  on  in  the  World; 
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$1.40 

The  same.    12mo.    Chicago.    Cloth. 

$2.00 

H.  Meier.  Das  Kind  in  seinen  ersten 
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tern  gewidmet.    8vo.    Leipzig.    $0.75 

S.  Neil.  Culture  and  Self-Culture.  8vo. 
London.    Paper.     $0.40 

K.  Oppel.  Das  Buch  der  Eltern.  Prak- 
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Hiram  Orcutt.  Parent's  Manual.  Home 
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Miss  J.  Pardee.  Parental  Instruction 
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Samuel  Smiles.  Self-Help  Library.  Con- 
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phies and  Self-Help.  4  vols.  lomo. 
Philadelphia.  Cloth.  ^  vol.  $1.25; 
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S.  Stern.  Die  hdusliche  Erziehung.  8vo. 
Leipzig.    $1.50 

I.  Taylor.  Home  Education.  8vo.  Lon- 
don.   Cloth.     $2.00 

Th.   D.   Woolsey.     Helpful  Thouglds  for 
Young  Men.  12mo.  Boston.  Cloth.  $1.25 
311 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


IV.  SPECIAL  EDUCATION. 

I'riinar}-,  Secondary,  and  Higher  Instruction.  The  Kinder- 
garten. Commercial,  INIilitary,  Naval,  Industrial,  and  Technical 
Education  and  Schools;  Art  Education  and  Schools.  Normal 
Instruction  and  Schools ;  and  Teachers'  Institutes.  Schools  for 
the  Blind,  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Imbecile,  and  Reform 
Schools.  Education  of  Wumen  or  Female  Education.  Physical 
Education.      ^^loral  and   Religious  Education;   Sunday  Schools. 


1.  Primary,  Secondary,  and 
Higher  Instruction. 

F.  Adams.  The  Free  School  Sysiteyn  of 
the  United  States.   8vo.    Londou.    $3.()0 

Matthew  Arnold.  Popular  Ednention 
in  France,  with  Notices  of  Holland. 
8vo.     London.     Cloth.     $4  20 

A    French  Eton:    or,  Middle-Class 

Education  and  tlte  State.  8vo.  London. 
Cloth.    11.00 

Higher  Schools  and  Universities  in 

Germany.  With  a  new  Preface  corn- 
paring  the  Policy  of  the  Prussian 
Government  touKtrds  Roman  Cutliolic 
Education  and  Roman  Catholicism 
irilh  that  of  the  English  Gonemment  in 
Ireland.     Kvo.    London.    Cloth.    $2. .51) 

W.  H.  Bainbri^ge.  Earhj  Education. 
Jleing  the  Suh.tlance  of  four  Lectures 
delirered  in  the  Putdic  Ilall  of  the  Col-' 
legiate  Institution.  Timo.  Liverpool. 
Cloth.     $1.00 

J.  L.  Bashford.  Elementary  Education 
in  Saxony.     8vo.     London.     $0.40 

Anna  Laetitia  Barbauld.     Early  Le.'isons 

for   Children.     12mo.     London.     $0.G0 

I 
Henry  Barnard.  Primary  Schools  and 
Elementary  Instruction:  Oliject  Teach- 
ing and  (}ral  LessDns  on  Sucial  Science 
and  Commtm  lldngs,  etc.  (I'apersfor 
the  Teacher.  Second  Series.)  8vo. 
Hartford.     Cloth.     $:5..'30 

Supen-ior    Instruction    in    different 

Coimtries.     Revised  Edition,  IHlH. 

Part  \.  Universities  in  Germany, 
Italy,  France,  Belgium.  IIoLand,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Pussia,  Greece,  Spain, 
I'orlugal.     8vo.  Hartford.  Cloth.  $3..50 

Part  IL  Universities  inGreat Britain. 
Kvo.  Hiu-tford.  Cloth.  $;i.50 
A  Bohlmann.  Vollstdndiger  Lehrplan 
neh.it  I'ensenverlfieilung  and  Lektions- 
pldnen  far  eine  ungelheitJe  einklassige 
Volksschide.  8vo.  lieipzig.  $0.-lo 
312 


Chas.  A.  Bristed.  Five  Years  in  an 
EnglishUniversity.  12mo.  N.Y.  Cloth. 
$2.25 

J.  Breiden.  Theoretisch-praktische  An- 
leitung  fiirden  AnschauungsunterrichL 
8vo.    Essen.    $0.30 

W.  Burton.  Tfie  Culture  of  the  Observing 
Faculties.     16mo.    N.  Y.   Cloth.   $0.75 

Norman  A.  Calkins.  Primary  Object 
Lessons,  for  Training  the  Senses  and 
Developing  the  Faculties  of  Children. 
A  Manned  of  Elementary  Instruction 
for  Parents  and  Teachers,  lie-u-rilten 
andenlarged.  12mo.  N.Y.  Cloth.  $1.23 

Jas.  Currie.  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Early  and  Infant  School  Education. 
12mo.     Edinbiirgh.    Cloth      $2.00 

J.  H.  Deinhardt.  Der  Gymnasial-U7i- 
terricht  nach  den  wissenschaftiichen 
Anforderungen  derjetzigen  Zeit.  8vo. 
Hamburg.     $1.65 

Ed.  Davies.  Intermediate  and  University 
Education  in  Wales.  8vo.  London. 
$0.40 

Denzel's  Enluyurf  de,^  Anschauungsunier- 
richts  in  katechetischer  Gedankenfolge. 
Practisch  ausgefiihrt  von  C.  Wraoe. 
Svo.  .\ltona.  L  Cursus  $0.55;  IL  Cur- 
sus  $1.G.') 

Friedrich  Dittes.  Methodik  der  Volks- 
schule.    8vo.     Leipzig  $L35 

FeL  A.  P.  Dupanloup.  The  Child.  Trans- 
lated by  Katk  Andekson.  12mo. 
Hostdn.     Cloth.    $1.50 

G.  M.  Dursch.  Pddagogik,  oder  Wis- 
senschaft dei-  christlicfien  Erziehnng  auf 
dem Siandpunkte  des  katholischenGlaii- 
bens.     8vo.     Tiibingen.     $3.00 

J.  E.  Erdmann.  Vorlesungen  Uber  akn- 
demi.'fches  Schullehen  und  Studium. 
Svo.     Leipzig.     $2.20 

F.  W.  Farrar.  On  Some  Defects  in  Pub- 
lic School  Education.  A  Lecture  de- 
livered at  theUoyal  Institution. February 
hth,  1807.  16mo.  London.  Paper.  $0.40 


THE  DICTION AEY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTKUCTION 


H.  Feix  Tind  F.  Jung.  Lurch  die  Rev 
■math.  Umschau  in  Haus,  Schule 
Garten,  etc.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Ern-eiie. 
ruvg  des  sinnlichen  und  sittlichen  Vor 
stellungskreises  unserer  Kleinen.  8vo 
Wiesbaden.    S0.90 

B.  Fohmann.  Ber  sinnliche  und  religios 
sittliche  Anschawmgsunterricht  als 
Lehrstnff  zu  elemeutarischen  ^Sprach 
Denk-  und  Slylubungen  nacli  bewdlirten 
Grundsdtzen  fiXr  (Xvutsche  Elementar 
undVolksschiden.  8vo.  Stuttgart.  $1.10 

G.  Frohlich.  Die  Yolksscliule  der  Zu 
kunft  ein  Ideal  far  die  Gegenwart. 
AusfUhrlich  dargestelU.  8vo.  Jena. 
$0.85 

J.  H.  Fuhr  und  J.  H.  Ortmann.  Der  An 
schauungs  ■  Unterricht  in  der  Yolks- 
scliule. Oder:  Anschauen,  Denken. 
Sprechen  und  Schreiben  zur  Begiiin- 
dung  der  Eealien  des  Styls  und  der 
Grammatik.  8vo.  4  parts.  Dillenburg. 
$3.25 

Jolin  Gill.  The  Art  of  Teaching  Young 
Minds  to  Observe  and  Think.  I2mo. 
London.     $0.80 

Systems  of  Education.    A  History 

and  Criticism.    V2mo.  London.   Cloth. 
$1.00 

Ed.  Giinther.  Kurzer  Wegweiser  fur 
Lehrer,  stotternde  Kinder  zu  heilen. 
8vo.    Neuwied.     $0.55 

F.  Harder.  TJieoretisch  -  praktisches 
HanfUjuch filr  den  Anschauungsunter- 
richt.  Mit  besonderer  Berucksichtigung 
des  Elementarunterrichts  in  den  Eea- 
lien.   8vo.    Altona.    $2.20 

Thomas  Hughes.  Tom  Broum's  School 
Days  at  Rugby.  12mo.  Boston.  Cloth. 
$1.00 

L.  T.  Knauss.  Das  erste  Schidjahr  ohne 
Lese-  und  Schreibunterricht  odei-  Dar- 
sieUung  eines  Anschauungs-  Vnterrlclds, 
der  den  gesammten  Schulunterricht  be- 
grundet.     8vo.     Stuttgart.    $1.50 

Simon  S.  Laurie.  On  Primary  Instruc- 
tion in  relation  to  Education.  With 
an  Appendix  on  "Secondary  Instruc- 
tion".   8vo.    Loudon.     Cloth.    $1.80 

"Of  the  highest  possible  interest,  and  affords 
sohitions  of  many  psycholoaical  problems  that 
are  stilt  debated  among  the  learned  in  such 
matter."  Westminster  Re7'ie^u. 

G.  Luz.  Der  Anschauungsunteivichtfur 
die  iintern  und  mittlern  Klassen  der 
Yolksschule.    8vo,    Wiesensteig.    $1.05 

L.  Meyer.  Die  Zukunft  der  deuischen 
Hochschulen  und  ihrer  Yorbildungs- 
anstalten.    8vo.    Breslau.    $0.40 

C.  F.  V.  Nagelsbach.  Gymnasial-Pixda- 
gogik.    8vo,    Erlangen.    SO.tiO 


John  Henry  Newman.  Idea  of  a  Uni- 
versity: considered  in  Nine  Discourses, 
Occasional  Lectures,  and  Essays.  8vo. 
London.    Cloth.     $2.80 

Olin's  College  Life;  Its  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice.    Vhno.    N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 

Alexandre  Ott.  (In  Mot  sur  V Instruction 
primaire.  Lancien  Regime,  la  Revolu- 
tion, VEpoque  actuelle.  8vo.  Nancy. 
$0.80 

J.  H.  Pestalozzi.  Btich  der  Mutter,  oder 
Anleitung  fiir  Miitter,  ihre  Kinder  be- 
rnerken  und  reden  zu  lehren.  8vo.  Leip- 
zig, 1803.     About  $0.50 

K.  Wm.  Piderit.  Zur  Gymnasialpdda- 
gogik.  Schulreden.  Hrsg.  v.  Alb. 
Fkeibe.     8vo.     $1.85 

Noah  Porter.  The  Amej-ican  Colleges 
and  the  American  Public.  With  after- 
thoughts  on  college  and  school  educa- 
tion.   12mo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.50 

K.  Richter.  Der  Anschauungsunterrichl 
in  den  Elementarklassen.  Aach  seiner 
Aufgabe,  seiner  Stellung  und  seinen 
Mittebi  dargestelU.  Gekronte  Preis- 
sclirift.    8vo.    Leipzig.    $1.05 

J.  H.  Rigg.  Xational  Education  in  its 
Social  ('onditinn  and  Aspects  and  Pub- 
lic School  Education.  English  and 
Foreign.     8vo.    London.    Cloth.    $3.60 

history  and  Present  Position  of 

Primary  Education  in  England.  12mo. 
London.     Paper.     $0.25 

C.  L.  Roth.  Gymnasial-Pddagogik.  8vo. 
Stuttgart.    $1.65 

P.  Rousselot.  Pedagogic  a  Vusage  de 
Venseignement primaire.  18mo.  Paris. 
$1.25 

K.  A.  Schmid.  Diemodernen  Gymnasial- 
reformer.     8vo.    Stuttgart.     $0.20 

Edmond  Schmidt.  LInstruction  pri- 
maire d  la  Campagne  en  Lorraine,  il 
y  a  cent  ans.  d^apres  Venquete  de  1779. 
Svo.     Paris.     $0.40 

K.  Schmidt.  Gymnasialpddagogik.  8vo. 
Gotha.    $1.65 

W.  Schrader.  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 
richtslehre  fiir  Gymnasien  und  Real- 
schiden.     8vo.     2  vols.     Berlin.    $3.85 

W.  F.  L.  Schwartz.  Der  Organismus  der 
Gymnasien  in  seiner  prakiischen  Ge- 
staUung.    8vo.     Berlin.    $1.35 

Ernst  Senckel.  Die  Schulspaj'kassen. 
Line  Denkschrift.    8vo.    Berlin.     $0.40 

Sir  J.  K.  Shuttleworth,  Public  Edu- 
cation as  affected  by  the  minutes  of  the 
Committee  of  Privy  Council  from  1846 
to  1852.  8vo.  London.  Cloth.  $3.60 
One  of  "the  most  important  works  on  Eng- 
lish education  known  to  me",     Donaldson. 

313 


THE  DICTIONAKl   Ol   EUUCATION  AND  INSTKUCTION 


S.  H.  Taylor.  Classical  Study.  12mo 
Andover.    Cloth.    $2.00 

Method  of  Classical  Study.    12mo. 

Boston.    Cloth.    fl.'25 

0.  F.  Thwing-.  American  Colleges:  their 
Sludeitts  a/al  their  Work:  iGnio.  N.  Y 
Cloth.     $1.00 

F.  Wiedemann.  JJer  Lehrer  der  Kleinen. 
Ein  iiraktischer  Ratligeber  fur  junge 
Elementarlehre);  ilber/uiupt  aher  ein 
Buch  fUr  AUe,  welche  sich  f-iir  die  Er- 
ziehimg  der  Kleinen  interessiren.  8vo. 
Leipzig.    $1.10 

A.  S.  Welch.  Object  Lessons.  12mo 
N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.00 

Wm.  Whewell.  On  the  Principles  of  En 
glish  University  Education.  12mo 
London.    Cloth.     About  $1.25 

A.  Wittstock.  Ueber  die  Griindung  pa 
dagogischer  FacuUdten  an  den  Univer- 
sitaten.    8vo.    Bleicherodc.     $0.30 


fl.iiu 
Then 

With 
Wien 


2.  The  Kindergarten. 

Henry  Barnard.  Kindergarten  and 
Cliild  Cu'iure  Papers.  8vo.  Hartford. 
Clolh.    $3.50 

Adf.  Diesterweg.  Der  Uhterricht  in  der 
Klein- Kinder-Schulc,  oder  die  Anfdnge 
der  Unterweisung  tind  liildimg  in  der 
Volksschide.    8vo.     Bielefeld.    $0.5.i 

Adolf  Douai.  The  Kindergarten.  A 
Manual  for  the  hdroduction  of  Frahel's 
System  of  Primary  Education  into 
Public  Sclioo's,  and  for  ifie  Use  of 
Motliers  and  Private  Teachers.  With 
IG  plates.    12mu.    N.  Y.    Cloth 

A.  S.  Fischer.  Ber  Kindergarten, 
reiiich  -  praktisches  Handbuclt. 
woodcuts  and  10  plates.  Hvo. 
$1.35 

Friedrich  Frobel.  Die  Pddagogik  des 
Kitidergartens.  Gedanken  Friedrich 
I'robel's  uber  das  Spiel  und  die  Spiel 
gegenstdnde  des  Kindes.  With  4  pp. 
of  Music  and  16  plates.  8vo.  Berlin 
$3.30 

— -  Manual  pratique  des  jardins  d'en- 
fants,  a  Ihisage  des  institutrices  et  des 
meres  defamille,  compose  sur  les  docu- 
ments aUemands  par  .1.  E.  Jacobs  et 
Mme.  labaronne  de  .MAUKNiioi.Tz-IkTK- 
LOw.  With  85  engravings  and  several 
pages  of  Music.    8vo.    Bruxelles.  $3.70 

Herm.   Goldammer.     F>-iedrich  Frdbel 
der  Begrilnder  der  Kinderqarten-Er 
ziehung.   Sein  Leben  und  Wirken.  8vo 
Berlin.     $0.75 
314 


Herm.  Goldammer.  Le  Jardin  d'enfants. 
Dons  et  Occupations  a  l^  usage  des 
meres  de  familie,  des  salles  d'asUeet 
des  ecoles  primaires.  Avec  nne  intro- 
duction de  Mme. la  baronne  de  Maren- 
Hoi.Tz-BuKi-o\v.  Traduit  de  Vallemand 
par  Louis  Foiknier.  120  plates.  8vo. 
Berlin.  Paper.  $3.70;  cloth.    $4.40 

Ber  Kindergarten.     Hattdburh  der 

FrdbePsclien  Erzieluoigsmetliode,  Spiel- 
gaben  und  Bescluifiigungen.  Nach 
FrobeVs  Scliriften  und  den,  Scliriften 
der  Frail  B.  v.  MarenfioUz-Buhu^  bear- 
beitet.  Mil  Beitrdgen  v.  B.  v.  Make.n- 
holtz-Blelow.  Svo.  2  vols.  Berlin. 
$3.60.     Cloth.     $4.70 

L  Fr.  FrobeVs  Spielgaben  f'O.r  das 
vorscludpflictitige  Alter.  With  60  plates. 
Cloth.     12.60 

II.  Fr.  Frribel's  Deschdftigungen  filr 
das  vorsclndpflicldiqe  Alter.  With  60 
plates.  Cloth.  $2.iO 
Qoldammer-RefiFelt.  Bie  Einordnung 
des  Kindergartens  in  das  Scliulivesen 
der  (rcini'inde.  Nach  H.  Goldammer 
mit  l\i\cksirld  auf  amerikauische  Ver- 
lidllnlsse  diirgesieUt  con  H.  Reffelt. 
r2mo.    X.  Y.     Paper.     $0.15 

Joseph  Gruber.  Bie  Pddaqogik  des 
Kindergartens  und  der  Bewalu-a)i- 
stalt.  With  16  plates.  Svo.  Leipzig. 
.*0.75 

W.  N.  Hailmann.  Four  Lectures  on 
Early  Child  Culture.  r2mo.  Milwaukee. 
Paper   $0.25;  Flexible  Cloth   $0.40 

Kindergarten  Culture  in  the  Faniily 

and  Kindergarten:  A  complete  Sketch 
if  Frirlii'l's  Systein  of  Early  Kil  neat  ion, 
ailajileiUo  Anicrioan  hist itut inns.  For 
tlie  use  of  Mothers  and  Teachers.  Illus- 
trated. 12mo.  Cincinnati.  Cloth,  net 
$0.75 

Handbook  for  the  Kindergarten.  With 
plates.    4to.    Springfield.' Paper.    $1.00 

Alex.  Bruno  Hanschmann.  Friedrich 
Frobel  Bie  Entu-ickelung  seiner  Er- 
zieliungsiuee  in  seinem  Leben.  8vo. 
Eisenach.     $2.60 

— -  Bas  Systmn  des  Kindergartens  nach 
Frobel.  Fur  Matter  und  Kinderqdrt- 
nerinnen.     12mo.    N.  Y.    $0.15 

Eleonore  Heerwart.  An  Abstract  of 
Le.ssonji  nn  the  Kindergarten  Si/stem 
given  tn  tfw  senior  Stiideyds  of  the  train- 
ing College,  Stockwell.  12mo.  London. 
Paper.     $0.50 

James  Hughes.  The  Kindergarten;  its 
Place  and  Purpose.  An  Address. 
12mo.     N^.  Y.     Paper.     $0.12 


THE  DICTIONAEY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


Der  Kindergarten  in  Amerika.  Entsteh- 
ung,  Wesen,  Bedeuiung  und  Erzieh- 
angsniUtel  des  FmbeVschen  Systems 
■und  seine  Anwendung  aiif  hiesige  Ver- 
hdltnisse.  Fiir  Eltent,  Lehrer  und 
Kindei'freunde  kurz  dargesteltt.  I'lmo. 
N.  Y.     Paper.     $0.15 

Aua.Kohler.  BieneueErziehung.  Grwid 
zi'tge  der  pddagogisclien  Ideen  Fr.  Fro- 
bei's  und  deren  Anwendung  in  Fandlie, 
Kindergarten  und  Schule.  I'imo.  N.  Y. 
Paper.     $0.15 

Die    Praxis     des     Eindergartens. 

Tkeoretisch-praktische  Aideitung   zmn. 
Gebrauche    der   Frobel'schen    Erzieh- 
ungs-  und  Bildungsmittel  in  Hans,  Kin- 
dergarten und  iSchule.      .svo.      3  vol 
Weimar.     $5.10 

(1.  With  IS  plates.  $1.70;  II.  With  40 
phite.s.  $1.7U;  111.  With  2  plates.  $1.70) 
Maria  Kraus-Boelte.  The  Kindergarten 
(tnd  the  Mission  of  Woman.-,  my  Ex 
perience  us  Trainer  of  Kindergarten 
Teachers  in  this  Country.  An  Address 
N.  Y.    Net  $0.06 

and  John  Krans.     Tlie  Kindergar 

ten  Guide.  An  Illustratrd  Iland.-Book 
designed  for  the  Self- Inst  ruction  of 
Kindei-gartno-s,  Mothers,  and  Xur.<ies 

No.  1.  $0.35;  cloth  S0.G5  — No.  2.10.70; 
cloth  $1.00  — No.  3.  $0.50;  cloth  $0.80  — 
No.  4.  $0.70;  cloth  Sl.OO  — No.  6.  $0.70; 
cloth  $1.00 
Matilda  H.  Kriege.  Tlie  Cliild,  its  A'o 
tnre  and  Relations.  An  Elucidation  of 
Frcebel's  Principles  of  Education.  A 
free  rendering  of  the  German  of  the 
Baroness  Marenholtz-Buelow.  12mo. 
N.  Y.     Cloth,  gilt  top.    $1.00 

Friedrich  Friehel.     A  biographical 

Sl-etch.  With  portrait.  12ino.  N.  Y. 
Paper  $0.25;  cloth  $0.50 

Mary  J.  Lyschinska.  The  Kindergarten 
Principle;  its  Educational  Value  and 
Chief  Applications.  Pimo.  London. 
Cloth.    $1.80 

B.  von  Marenholtz-Bulow.  Tlie  Won 
Education  by  Work,  according  to  Frw-l 
beVs  Method.  Translated  by  Mrs. 
Horace  Mann,  with  the  assistance  of 
Lkopold  Noa.  12mo.  Camden.  Net 
$0.75 

■  Reminiscences  of  Friedrich  Frcebel. 

Translated  by  Mrs.  Horace  Mann.  With 
a  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Friedrich  Froibel 
by  Emily  Shirreff.  12mi(.  Boston. 
Cloth.     $1.50 

Bas  Kind  und  sein  Wesen.    Bei- 

trdge  zum  Verstdndniss  der  FrobeV- 
scKen  Erziehungslehre.  Svo.  Berlin. 
$1.10 


B.  von  Marenholtz-Biilow.  Die  Arbeit 
und  die  neue  Erziehung  nach  FrobeVs 
Methode.    Svo.    Cassel.    $1.65 

C.  Mayo.  Lessons  on  Objects  in  a  Pesia- 
lozzian  School.  12nio.  San  Francisco. 
Cloth.     $1.75 

Eliz.  Mayo.  Practical  Remarks  on  In- 
fant JLducation,  for  the  Use  of  School 
and  Private  Families.  12mo.  London. 
$11.50 

Bertha  Meyer.  Von  der  Wiege  bis  zur 
Selmle  an  der  Hand.  Frdr.  Frohel's. 
iSvo.     Berlin.     $0.85 

Lina  Morgenstern.  Bas  Paradies  der 
Kindheit.  Fine  ausfiUaiiche  Anleitung 
furMiitter  mtdErzieherinnen,  Friedricli 
Frobel's  Spiel  -  Beschuftigungen  in 
HauS'  und  Kindergarten praktisch  aus- 
zuuben.  With  150  woodcuts.  Svo. 
Leipzig.     $1.65;  cloth  $2.05 

C.  B.  Morehonse.  The  Kindei-gaHen: 
its  Aims,  Methods,  and  J^esulis.  A 
practical  Explanation  of  the  Sy.'ite)n  of 
Froibel.  Illustrated.  ■l2mo.  N.  \\ 
Paper.     $0.25 

Joseph  Payne.  Tlie  Science  and  Art  of 
Education  (a  Lecture),  and  Principles 
of  the  Science  ofEducation,  as  exhibited 
in  the  Phenomena  founded  on  the  lui- 
folding  of  a  Young  Child's  Powers  un- 
der the  Influence  of  Natural  Circum- 
stances. 12mo.  N.  Y.  Paper  $0.15; 
cloth  $0.40 

—  Frcebel  and  the  Kinde^-garten  System 
of  Elementary  Instruction.  12mo. 
N.  Y.    Paper.    $0.15 

—  A  Visit  to  German  Schools.  WitJt 
discussions  on  theKindergarien.  12mo. 
London.     $1.80 

Elizabeth  P.  Peabody.  Guide  to  the 
Kindergarten  a>id  Intennediate  Class. 
And  Moral  Culture  of  Infancy.  By 
Mary  Manx.  EevisedEdition.  12mo. 
N.  Y.     Cloth.     11.25 

Education    of   the    Kindei-gartner. 

A  Lecture.    12mo.   N.  Y.    Paper.    $0.25 

■  The  Nursery.    A  Lecture.     12m(i. 

X.  Y.     Paper.     $0.25 
W.  F.  Phelps.    Pestalozzi.    12mo.    N.  Y. 

Paper.     $0.10 

F'Odbel.    12rao.   N.  Y.  Paper.    $n.lo 

H.  Posche.     F-dr.   FrobePs  entvickelnd- 

erziehende  Menschenbildung.  Svo.  2 
parts.     Hamburg.     $0.90 

Frdr.     FrobeVs     entirickelnd-erzie- 

hende Menschenbildung  { Kindergarten- 
Pddagogik)  als  System.  Eine  umfas- 
sende  wortgetreue  Zusam.menstellung. 
Svo.    Hamburg.    $1.65 

315 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


Joh.  Fr.  Ranke.  Aiis  (ler  Praxis  fiXr  die 
Praxis^  in  Kinderstube  vnd  Kleinkin- 
derschule.     Svo.     Elberfekl.     S0.40 

Johannes  and  Bertha  Ronge.  A  practical 
Guide  to  the  Eiifjlish  Kindergarten, 
for  the  use  of  Mot/iers,  (rovernesses, 
and  Infant- Teachers,  being  a )i  exposi- 
tion of  FroebeVs  System  of  Infant- 
Teaching,  accompanied  with  a  great 
variety  of  Instructive  and  Amusing 
Gaines,  and  Industrial  and  Gymnastic 
Exercises.  With  numerous  Songs  set 
to  Music  and  arranged  for  the  Exer- 
cises. With  71  litliograpliic  plates.  4to. 
London.     Cloth.    $2.10 

Frdr.  Seidel.  Katechismus  der  prakti- 
schen  Kindergdrtnerei.  With  35  iliustr. 
KiiiiD.     Leipzig.     $0.45 

Emily  Shirreff.  The  Kindergarten.  Prin- 
ciples of  Frmbel's  System  and  their 
Bearing  on  the  Education  of  Women. 
Also,  liemarks  on  the  higher  Education 
of  Women.   iSvo.    Loudon.  Cloth.  SI. 2.) 

Edwai'd  Wiebe.  'The  Paradise  of  Child- 
hood. A  Manual  for  Self- Instruction 
in  Fr.  Frwbel's  Educationrd  Principles, 
and  a  practical  Guide  to  Kinder- Gart- 
ners. With  74  plates.  4to.  Spring- 
field.    Paper.     $1.50;  cloth  $2.00 


Elizabeth  P.  Peabody.  77ie  Identificatimi 
of  the  Artisan  and  Artist  the  proper 
object  of  American  Education.  Illus- 
trated by  a  Lecture  of  Cardinal  Wise- 
man, on  the  Relation  of  tlie  Arts  of  De- 
sign u-ith  the  Arts  of  Production.  Witli 
an  Essay  on  Fkcebel's  Reform  of  Pri- 
mary Education.  Svo.  Boston.  Paper. 
$0.20 

Walter  Smith.  Art  Education,  Scho- 
lastic and  Industrial.  Iliustr.  Svo. 
Boston.     Cloth.     $5.00 

C.  B.  Stetson.  Technical  Education: 
What  it  is  and  what  American  Public 
Schools  sh,ould  teach.  An  Essay  based 
on  an  Examination  if  the  Methods  and 
PesuUs  of  Technical  Educ(dion  in  Eu- 
rope, as  shown  by  Official  Reports. 
161110.     Boston.     Cloth.     $1.25 

Thos.  Twining.  Technical  Training. 
Being  a  suggest  ire  sketch  of  a  National 
System  of  Industrial  Instruction,  foun- 
ded on  a  general  diffusion  of  Practical 
Science  among  the  people.  Svo.  Lon- 
dou.     Cloth.     $4.50 


Normal    Instruction     and 
Schools;    and    Teachers' 
Institutes. 


3.    Commercial.  Military,  Naval,  ^^y  B™rd.    Nonnal  Schools,  and 
Tj      J.   •    ^        jm     1      -11-11  other      Institutions,      Agencies      and 


Industrial  and  Technical  Edu 

cation  and  Schools  ;    Art  Edu 

cation  and  Schools. 

Henry  Barnard.  Military  and  JVaval 
Si'Jiools  in.  France,  Prussia,  Havaria, 
Itah/.  Russia,  Holland,  England,  and 
the  United  States.  Svo.  Hartford.  Cloth. 
$5.50 

Science  and  Art.     Systems,    Insti- 

ttdions,  and  Stalistics  of  Scientific  In- 
struction,  applied  to  Ncttional  Indus- 
tries in  different  ('ou)dries.  Vol.  1. 
Hfo.     Hartford.     Cloth.     $5.50 


Means  designed  for  the  Professional 

Education  of  Tenchers.  Svo.   Hartlbrd. 

Cloth.     $5.50 
S.  P.  Bates.    Institute  Lectures  on  Mental 

and  Moral  Culture.  12iiio.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 

$1.50 
Method  of  Teachers'  Institutes,  and 

the  Theori/ of  Edncation.   12mo.  N.  Y. 

Cloth.     0.'75' 
H.  G.  Brzoska.     Lie  Kothwendigkeit  pd- 

dagogischer  Seniinare  auf  der  ifniversi- 

tat  mid  Hire  ?.u-eckmitssige  Einrichtung. 

8vo.     Leipzig.     $1.50 
G.  Coulie.     Tfie  Education   qf  iJoy.s  /(»•  H.  Deinhardt.    IJeber  Lehrerbildung  und 


Business.  Being  practical  Sugge.^ions 
to  Parents  on  the  Education  of  their 
.^ns  for  commercial  Life.  12nio.  Lon- 
don. Cloth.  $l.(i0 
E.  Diirre.  Pddngogisches  Wanderbucli.] 
Reisebericht  iiber  Induntrie-,  Strick-  und' 
Xdli.*<chulen,  Hire  Method/',  Organisa- 
tion und,  Erweiterung.  nebsf  eiiier  kriti- 
sclien    Beleuchtung   der  S/nififiechterei.^ 


Nvo.     (;otha.     $0.(i0 
J.  Langl.    Modern  Art  Education. 


Lehrcrbildungsanstalten.  Svo.  Wien. 
$0.20 

F.  A.  W.  Diesterweg.  Zur  Lehrerbil- 
dung.    Svo.     Frankfurt  a. M.     $0.20 

Piidanogisches    Wollen  und  Sollen. 

DargesteMt  fiXr  Leute,  die  nicht  fer/ig 
.•iind,  aber  eben  darum,  Lust  haben, 
nachzudenken.  Svo.  Frankfurt  a.  M. 
$0.1i(» 


I Wegweiser  zur  Bildung  filr  deutsche 

12nio.'     Lehrer.     Svo.     .3  vols.     JEssen.     $7.70 
Boston.     Cloth.     $0.75  |w.   B.    Fowle.     Teachers'  InstUiUe;  or, 

H.    R.    Palmer.     Musir-d/ass    Teaching.i     Faviiliar    Hints    to    Young    Teacliers. 
12iiio.     Cincinnati.     $0.50  |     12ino.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.25 

316 


THE  DIC'lIONAllY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


T.  Grunewald.     Wie  erhaU  sich  der  Leh- 

rer  den  idealen  Schwimg  und  die  Begeis- 

terung  fur  seinen  Beruf?    8vo.     Liine- 

burg.    $0.20 
F.  Leutz.    Die  Theorie  und  Praxis  des 

pddagogischen  Unterrichis  an  dendeut- 

schen     Schullehrer-Seuiinarien.      8vo. 

Karlsruhe.    $0.50 
C.  Nohl.    Padagogische  Seminarien  auf 

Unico-sUdten.     8vo.     Neuwied.     $0.55 
W.  F.  Phelps.     Teachefs  Hand- Book  for 

the    Institute    and    the    Ctasa    Boom. 

12mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 
E.  B.  Pusey.    CoUegiate  and  Professional 

Teaching  and  Discipline.     8vo.    N.  Y, 

Cloth.    $1.00 
Wm.  Russell.     Normal  Training.   1 21110 

Hartford.     Cloth.     $1.50 


Alexandre  Rodenbach.  Les  Aveugles  e, 
les  Sourds-Muets.  Histoire,  instruction 
education,  biographie.  2e  Edition,  re- 
vue, corrigee  et  augment^e  d'ua  alpha- 
bet des  sourds-muetg  et  deux  fac-similes. 
12mo.     Tournai.     $0.60 

Jos.  Ruppert.  Ueber  Erziehung,  Unter- 
richt  und  Yersorgung  der  Blinden.  8vo. 
Miiiichen.     $0.30 

Ludwig  V.  St.  Marie.  Der  Blinde  und 
seine  Bildung.    8vo.    Leipzig.     $0.25 

E.  Seguin.  Idiocy,  and  its  Treatment  bg 
the  Plujsiological  Method.  8vo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $5.00 

Traitement  moral,  Hygiene  et  Edu- 
cation des  Idiots  et  des  autres  enfants 
arriervs  ou,  retardes  dans  lew  deve- 
loppement,  agites  de  m,ouvements  into- 
lontaires,  debiles,  muets  non  sourds, 
b'i'gues,  etc.     12mo.     Paris.     $2.10 

Henr.  Soder.  Die  Methodik  des  Sprach- 
UnterricMs  in  Taubstummen-Austalten. 
8vo.     Hannover.     $0.40 


5.  Schools  for  the  Blind,  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  and  Imbecile; 
and  Reform.  Schools. 
T.  R.  Armitage.      The  Education  and^-    Education  of  Women,  or  Fe- 

Employment  of  the  Blind.    Wiat  it  has 


been,  IS,  and  'ought  to  be.  8vo.  Lon- 
don.    Cloth.     $1.00 

H.  Barnard.  Beformatory  and  Preven- 
tive Agencies.  8vo.  Hartford.  Cloth. 
$5.50 

Tribute  to  GaUaudet;  with  Hlitory 

of  Deaf-Mute  Instruction  and  Institu- 
tion.    8vo.     Hartford.     $0.50 

Mary  Carpenter.  Beformatory  Schools, 
for  tlie  children  of  the  Perishing  and 
Dangerous  Classes,  and  for  Juvenile 
Offenders.    8vo.    London.    Cloth.    $2.00 

T.  Guthrie,  Bagged  Schools.  12mo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $1.00 

M.  Hill.  Anleitung  zum  Sprachunterricht 
taubstummer  Kinder.  8vo.  Essen.  $1.35 

Wm.  H.  Latham.  First  Lessons  for 
Deaf-Mutes.  IBmo.  Cincinnati.  Paper. 
$0.30 

H.  P.  Peet.  Course  of  Instruction  for 
Deaf  and  Dumb.  16mo.  N.  Y.  Parti, 
Cloth.  $0.75;  Part  II.,  not  published; 
Part  III.   Paper.  $1.00 

Isaac  Lewis  Peet.  Language  Lessons 
Designed  to  introduce  young  learners, 
deaf-mutes  and  foreigners,  to  a  correct 
understanding  and  use  of  the  English 
Language.   12mo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.   $1.25 

Ed.  Rossler.  Beitrdge  zur  Forderung  des 
Taubstummen  -  BiUhtngsuiesens.  8vo. 
Leipzig.     $0.75 


male  Education. 

Aime-Martin.   The  Education  of  Mothers 
of  Families;   or,  the  Civilization  of  the 
human  race  by  Women.    12mo.    Lon- 
don.    Cloth.    $2.no 
"Ce  sont  les  femmes  qui  font  et  defont  les 

nations."  Saint  Pierre. 

Mme.  CI.  Beaudoux.  La  Science  mater- 
nelle;  ou  education  morale  et  intellec- 
tuelle  des  jeunes  files.  12mo.  Paris. 
$1.40 

Anna  C.  Brackett.  The  Education  of 
American  Girls,  considered  in  a  Series 
of  Essays.    12rao.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.75 

Edu.  Cauer.  Die  hohere  Mddcheuschule 
unddieLehrerinnenfrage.  8vo.  Berlin. 
$0.40 

Edward  H.  Clarke.    Se.c  in  Education; 
or,  A  Fair  Chance  for  the  Girls.  Kinio. 
Boston.     Cloth.     $i.25 
A  strong  statement  of  the  physiological  ar- 
gument against  co-education. 

A.  Dammann.  Die  deutsche  Bilrger- 
Madchenschule.  Ein  voUstdndiger  Un- 
terrichtsplan.  Mit  besonderer  Benut- 
zung  der  einschliigigen  Literatur.  8vo. 
Berlin.     $1.00 

Darwin's  u.  Hufeland's  Anleitung  zur 
physischen  und  7noraUschen  Erziehung 
des  iveiblichen  Geschlechts.  Hrsg.  v.  F. 
A.  Aiiiiox.     8vo.     Leipzig.     $0.40 

Emily  Davies.  The  Higher  Education  of 
Women.   12nio.    London.   Cloth.   $1.40 

317 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDICATTOX  AND  INSTRUCTION 


Chas.  Kingsley 
12mo.    N.  y. 


Fr.  Fen61oii.  De  T Education  des  FiUes. 
12mo.     Paris.    $1.20 

F.  J.  Giinther.  Brief e  on  eine  Matter 
ilher  die  vAcldigslen  Mdntjel  in  derjetzi- 
gen  Erziehung  der  Tuc/iter  hulierer 
iSidnde.     8vo.     Biek'fekl.     SI. 50 

Harriet  Martineau.     Household  Ednca-  '. 
Hon.     12uio.     Boston.     Cloth.     $1.25 

J.  S.  Mill.  On  Libei-ty:  The  Subjeetio, 
of  Women.    8vo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    12.50 

Hannah  More.    Strictures  on  the  Modern 

Si/steni  of  Female  Education;   vith  a 

\  Lew  of  the  Erinciples  antl    Conduct 

2)revalent  among  Women  of  Rank  and^E.    Paz. 

Fortune.  2  vols.  12ino.  London.  Cloth.      12mo, 

$4.00  \  T      r,  f  •  ■ 

—  La  (rymnastique  rmsorun'.e,  moyen, 

infaillihle  de  preoenir  les  inaladies  et 

de  prolonger  Vexistenoe.     8vo.    Paris. 

Mrs.  A.  H.  L.  Phelps.     Fireside  FriendA    «l-75 

or.  Female  Student:  Advice  to  young'  fLMS.    Ravenstein.      Volksturnbuch,    im 

Ladies  on  Education.     12mo.    N.    Y.j     Sinne  von  Jahn,    Eiselen.  und  Spiess. 

Cloth.    $1.50  8vo.    Frankfurt  a.  M.    $2.95 

J.  Preis.   Die  beste  Ausstattung  fiXr  junge\Z.  J.  Robinson.    Iland-Book  of  the  Phys- 


EeaUh  and  Education. 
Cloth.    $1.75 

Gius.  Lauri.  Mannale  diginnastica  edu- 
catita  ad  nso  delle  scuole  elementari 
maschili  e  femminili.  4.  Macerata. 
$0.90 

Dio  Lewis.  Xew  Gymnastics  for  Men, 
Women  and  Children.  lUustr.  12mo. 
Bost  u.    Cloth.     $1.50 

Archibald  Maclaren.  .1  Sy.'item  of  Phys- 
ical Education,  Theoretical  and  Prac- 
tical. With  Illustrations.  12mo.  Lon- 
don,    $2.25 

La    Gymnnstique   obligatoire. 
Paris.    $0.40 


J.  Or  ton.     Liberal  Education  of  Women.] 
12mo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.50 


Bamen.    Svo.     Brieg.    $1..J0 

K.  V.  Ranmer.     T)ie  Erziehung  der  Mad- 
Chen.     8vo.     Gutersloh.     $0.90 


ical  Training  in  Schools,  including  full 
Directions  for  a  Variety  of  Cidistli'enic 
Exercises.  Adapted  to  Classes  if  all 
Grades,  and  to  Social  and.  fndividnol 
Practice.  Itimo.  San  Francisco.  Paper. 
$0.75 


tion  in  the  upper  Ciasses. 
Cloth.     $2.00 


linio.    X.  Y'. 


Miss  E.  M.  Sewell.     Principles  of  Edn 
catiiin,  dniii'n  from  Xatnre  and  Here 

lation,  and,  aiinlied  to  Female  Ednca -tju,  ^^      „   .,        .^y  .-      t^ 

'  "  '  -   \'  Math.  Roth.     Gymnastic   E.rerci.ies  ac- 

cording to  Limj's  system.    12mo.     Lon- 
don.    $0.50 

Emily   Shirreff.      Intellectual   Edncatinn^xt   o..u-.«„<-.,x.v,       n -vj^   •  i^-cj 

and  its  Inrlncnce  nn  the  Character  aml^\f''^^^^^°.''^-  ^^'.f  •'•'0»«  S"'"  I' fxca- 
Happiness  of  Women.  12mo.  London  '''Zil  'rT.  le.9  Moui^ements  cor- 
CI  )th      i:''  40  porels  a  ioccasion  du  projet  de  loi  sur 

'  I     la    Gymnastique    scolaire    obligatoire 

Augnstin  Thery.      Cnnseils  aux    mires     dans  les  ecoles  de  France.    >^vo.   Paris. 
siir  les  moyens  de  diriger  et  dHnstruirci     $0.75 

lenr  filles,'a  fusage.  iles  yni'res,  des  ?»- h.  G.  M.  Schreber.  Aerztliche  Zimmer- 
shlulrices  et  des  maitresses  de  pensions. \  gijmnastik.oder  S,/stem  ilerohne  Gerdth 
12nio.     2  vols.     Pans.     $2.40  |     n'nd  Beisfantl  i>h,rall  ansfiihrbarenheil- 

John  Todd.      Tlie  Daughter  at  SclwoV    gyrnnasli.'tchcn  Freiabungen.  8vo.  Leip 
r2mo.    Northampton.     Cloth.    $1.50     I     ^-'S- 

R.  Th 


7.   Physical  Education. 

Cath.  E.  Beecher.  Physiology  and  Cxl-\ 
isthenics  in  Schoals  and  Families.] 
Over  100  TUu^tr.     ]<;mo.    N.  Y.    (llotli. 

ji.oo 

H.  Klencke.  Scltu'-Pidtetik.  Praktische 
ffesunilhf'itspjlcgr  in  Schnlen  und  Ge-\ 
snndheitslehre  fiir  Knaben  und,  Mad- 
chen  in  der  Schulzeit.  Ein  Buck  fiXr 
JJnIerrichtsbehbrden,  Schulvorsfdnd/e, 
Lehrer  und  EUern.   Svo.  Leipzig.  $0,70' 

318 


Boards.    $1.10 

Trail.      Tlie  Illustrated  Family 
Gymnasium.  12mo.  N.Y.  Cloth.  $1.50 

■J.  Madison  Watson.  Manual  of  Calis- 
thenics: A  systematic  Drill-Book  with- 
out  Apparatus,  for  Schools,  Families. 
and  Gyynnasiums.  With  nuisio  to  ac- 
compau}'  the  Exercises.  Rvo.  Illustr. 
N.  V.     Cloth.     $1.20 

Hand- Book    of  Calisthenics   and 

Gymnastics :  A  Complete  Drill-Book 
for  Schools,  Families,  and  Gymna- 
siums. With  music  to  accompanj'  the 
Exercises.  Svo.  Illustr.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
$2.00 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


8.  Moral   and  Religious  Educa- 
tion; Sunday  Schools. 

Jac.  Abbott.  The  Teacher.  Moral  In- 
fiuences  employed  in  the  Instruction 
and  Government  of  the  Young.  12mo. 
lUustr.    N.  Y.     Cloth.    $1.75 

J.  Abercrombie.  The  Philosophy  of  the 
Moral  Feelings,  with  Additions  by 
Jacob  Abbott.  12mo.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
$0.90 

Culture  and  Discipline  of  the  Mind, 

and  other  Essays.     I'imo.    Edinburgh 
Cloth.    $1.40 

Amos  Bronson  Alcott.  Record  of  a 
School,  exemplifying  the  Principles 
and  Methods  of  Moral  Culture.  16mo. 
Boston.    Cloth.    $1..")0 

F.  Beard.  The  Blackboard  in  the  Sun- 
day-School. A  Practical  Guide  for 
Superintendents  and  Teachers.  12ino. 
N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 

Cath.  E.  Beecher.  Tlie  Religious  Train- 
ing of  Children,  in  the  Family,  the 
School,  and  the  Church.  12mo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.    $1.75 

C.  Bray.  Education  of  the  Feelings,  a 
Moral  Systemfor  Secular  Schools.  8vo. 
London."    Cloth.     $1.00 

N.  C.  Brooks.  School  Manual  of  Devo- 
tion. For  Daily  Exercises  consisting 
of  Selections,  Hymns,  and  a  Form  of 
Prayer.    18mo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.     $0.75 

Sci'ipture    Manual;    or.    Religious 

Exercises  for  the  Morning  and  Even- 
ing of  each  Day  in  the  Month.  For 
Academies,  Schools,  and  Families. 
18mo.    Phila.    Cloth.    $0.75 

And.  Combe.  A  Treatise  on.  the  Physio- 
logical and  Moral  Management  of  In- 
fancy. For  the  Use  of  Parents.  18mo, 
'N.  Y.    Cloth.     $0.75  ■ 

W.  F.  Crafts.  Childhood.  The  Text 
Book  of  the  Age.  A  Book  for  Parents, 
Pastors,  and  Sunday- School  Teachers. 
12mo.    lllustr,     Boston.     Cloth.    $1.60 

Through  the  Eye  to  the  Heart,  or 

Eye- Teaching  in  the  Sunday  School. 
Revised  Edition,  with  Illustrations  for 
the  International  Lessons  for  1877. 
12mo.     Paper.     $0.50;  cloth  $1.00 

F.    Dittes.     Naturlehre   des  Moralischen 
und  Kunstlehre    der  moralischen   Ei 
ziehnng.     8vo.     Leipzig.     $0.55 

M.  G.  Dursch.  Pddagogik  oder  Wissen- 
schaft  der  christlicKen  Erziehnng,  auf 
dem  Standpunkte  des  katholischen 
Glaubens  dargestellt.  8vo,  Tubingen. 
$3.00 


B.  W.  Dwight.  Higher  Christian  Edu- 
cation. 12mo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.50 

Ed.  Eggleston.  I'he  Manual.  A  Prac- 
ticed Guide  to  the  Sunday-School  Work. 
32mo.  Chicago.  Paper,  $0.30;  cloth, 
$0.75 

.  M.  Gow.  Good  Morals  and  Gentle 
Manners  for  Schools  and  Families. 
12mo.     Cincinnati.     Cloth.     $1.25 

D.  S.  Gregory.  Christian  Ethics;  or. 
The  True  Moral  Manhood  and  Life  of 
Duty.  A  Text-Book.  12mo.  Phila. 
Cloth.    $1.50 

A.  W.  Grube.  Von  der  sittlichen  Bildung 
der  Jugend  im  ersten  Jahrzehend  des 
Lebens.    8vo.    Leipzig.   $0.90 

William  T.  Harris.  Moral  Education  in 
the  Public  Schools.  A  Paper.  24  pp. 
$0.0G 

S.  Hart.  Tlie  Sunday-School  Idea; 
consisting  of  an  Exposition  of  the  Prin- 
ciples which  underliethe  Sunday-School 
Cause,  and  setting  forth  its  Objects, 
Organization,  Methods,  and  Capabili- 
ties.    12mo.    Phila.    Cloth.    $1.50 


Excelsior^  O)'  Essays  on  Poliieness,  Edu- 
cation, and  the  Means  of  Attaining 
Success  in  Life.  Part  I.  For  Young 
Gentlemen,  by  T.  E.  Howard.  —  Pa  nil. 
For  Young  Ladies,  by  a  Lady  (R.  U. 
V.)  12mo.     Baltimore.    Cloth.    $1.50 

Chr.  Palmer.  Evangelische  Pddagogik. 
8vo.     Stuttgart.     $2.65 

E.  P.  Peabody.  Record  of  Mr.  AlcotVs 
School  exemplifying  the  Principles  and 
Methods  of  Moral  Culture.  16mo. 
Boston.     Cloth.    §1.50 

Mrs.  Lincoln  Phelps.  The  Student;  en- 
Fireside  Friend;  triih  an  Appendix  on 
Moral  and  Religious  Education.  12mo. 
N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.50 

Cath.  A.  Sedgwick.  Morals  of  Manners; 
or.  Hints  for  our  Young  Folks.  16mo. 
X.  Y.     Cloth.     $0.60 

Fz.  Splittgerber.  Die  moderne  wider- 
christliche  Pddagogik,  nach  ihren 
Bahnhrecherii  Rousseau  und  Ba.'sedoio 
vom  StandjiN/ilte  des  Evangeliums  aus 
dargestellt  und  heurtheilt.  8vo.  Leipzig. 
$0.75 

J.  Stadlin.  Die  Erziehung  im  Lichte  der 
Bergpredigt.     8vo.     Aarau.     $1.30 

J.  Todd.     Tlie  Sabbath-School  Teacher. 
Designed  to  aid  in  elevating  and  per- 
fecting    the    Sabhath-School    Srjstem. 
12mo.    Northampton.    Cloth.    $1.50 
319 


THE  DICTIONAKY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTKUCTION 


V.  SCHOOL  ECONOMY. 
School  Laws;   School  Architecture;   School  Hygiene;    School 
Furniture  and  Apparatus;     School    Supervision,    Discipline,    and 
Management;  School  Libraries  and  Museums;  Teachers' Manuals. 

Jac.  Abbott.      Gentle  Measures   in   the 

Management    and     Training    of   the 

Young,  or  the  Principles  on  which  a 

Jirm  Parental  Authority  may  he  estab- 
lished and  maintained  ivithout  violence 

or  anger,  and  the  Bight  Development 

of  the  Moral  and  Meiital  Capacities  be 

pi-omoted  by  methods  in  harinony  vnth 

the  Structure  and  Characteristics  of  the 

Juvenile  Mind.    A  Book  for  the  Par 

ents  of  Young  Children.    12mo.    N.  Y. 

Cloth.    $1.75 
The  Teacher.   Moral  Influences  em- 
ployed in  the  Instruction  and  Govern 

nieni  of  the  Young.  12mo.  X.  Y.  Cloth 

$1.75 

E.    Ackermann.      Das    Ehrgefiihl    im 

Dienste  der  Erziehung.   8vo.  Eisenach 

$0.20 
Charles  F.  Adams,  Jr.      The  Public  Li- 
brary and  the  Common  Schools:  Three 

Papjers  on  Educational  Topics.   I.  2'he 

Public  Library  and  the  Public  Schools; 

II.  Fiction   in  Public  Libraries,   and 

Educational  Catalogues;  III.   2V/e  Xen- 

Departure  in  the  Common  Schools  of 

Quincy.    IGrao.    Boston.    Paper.    S).'i.5 

A.  B.  Alcott.  Pecord  of  a  School.  iGmo. 
Boston.     Cloth.     $1.50 

H.  Barnard.  American  Graded  Public 
Schools,  vith  Plans  of  School-Houses 
and  Equipment  and  Regulations  for 
Schools  in  Cities.  8vo,  Hartford.  Cloth. 
$3.50 

School  Codes:  Constitutional  Pro- 
visions resqyecting  Education,  State 
School  Codes,  and  City  School  Begu- 
lations.    8vo.     Hartlortl.     Cloth.   $3.00 

School    Architecture:     Principles. 

Plans  and  Specifications  for  Structures 

for  Educational  Purposes.    Svo.   Hart- 
ford.   Cloth.     $5.00 

C.  W.  Bardeen.     Common  School  Lav\ 

A  Diqest  of  the  Provisions  of  Statute 

and  Common  Lau^  as  to  the  Belations 

of  the  Teacher  to  the  Pupil,  the  Parent 

and  the  District.    Witli  four  hundred 

references.     IGrao.     Sjracuse.     $0..j0 
A.    J.    Bicknell.      School    Houses    and 

Church  Architecture.  4to.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 

$3.00 

320 


J.  R.  Blackiston.  Hints  on  School  Man- 
agement.  12mo.  London.    Cloth.    $0.7."» 

Buckham.  Hand-books  for  Young  Teach- 
ers. I.  First  Steps,  lijmo.  Syracuse. 
Cloth.     $0.75 

F.  Buisson.  Devoirs  d'EcoHers  Ameri- 
cains,  recueillis  a  V Exposition  de  Phi- 
ladelphie  (1876).    16mo.    Paris. 

Lyman  Cobb.  The  Evil  Tendencies  of 
Corporal  Punishment  as  a  means  of 
Moral  Discipline  in  Families  and 
Schools,  examined  and  discussed. 
Part  I.  Objections  to  the  use  of  the 
Bod.  Part  II.  Substitutes  for,  and 
Preventives  of  the  use  of  the  Bod.  8vo. 
N.  Y.  1847.  About  $2.00 
The   whole  book   deserves  study,  though 

Part  II.  is  particularly  valuable. 

H.  Cohn.  Die  Schulhygiene  aufder  Pa- 
riser  Weltausstellung,  1878.  Svo.  Bres- 
lau.     SU.55 

J.  C.  Dalton.  A  Treatise  on  Physiology 
and  Hygiene;  for  Schools,  lamilies, 
and  Colleges.  18mo.  lllustr.  N.  Y. 
Cloth. $1.50 

E.  W.  DeGraff.  The  School-Boom  Guide, 
embodying  the  I)istruction  given  by  the 
Author  at  Teacliers'  Institutes  in  New 
York  and  other  States,  especially  in- 
tended  to  assist  Public  School  Teachers 
in  tlie  Practical  Work  of  the  School- 
Boom.    iGnio.    Syracuse.  Cloth.    $1.50 

M.  et  Mme.  Delon.  M&hode  intuitive, 
exercises  et  travaux  pour  les  enfants 
selon  les  mvthodes  et  lesproaWs  de  Pes- 
ialozzietde  Frwbel.  With  241ith.  plates. 
Svo.     Paris.     $2.45 

Theodore  Dwight.  Jr.  The  School-Mas- 
ter's Friend,  with  the  Committee-Man's 
Guide;  containing  Suggestions  on 
Common  Education,  Modes  of  Teach- 
ing and  Governing,  arranged  for  ready 
Beference;  Plans  of  Sclioot ■  Houses. 
Furniture,  Apparatus,  Practical  Hints 
and  Anecdotes  on  Different  Systems, 
etc.  For  daily  «.se  iii  Common  Schools: 
also  Directions  to  Committee-men  and 
Trustees  of  Schools,  and  Friends  of 
Education,  on  the  Means  of  improving 
Schools  this  Year.  Plates.  12mo.  N.  i . 
1835.     About  $1.50 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTEUCTION 


S.  F.  Eveleth.  School-House  Architecture. 
Designs  for  School- Houses,  icith  Per- 
spectives, Elecations,  Plans,  Sections, 
Details,  and  Specifications,  all  drawn 
to  working  scale,  ihith  methods  of  Heat 
ing  and  Ventilation.  4to.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
$4.00 

F.  Falk.  Die  sanitt^Us-polizeiliche  Ueber 
wachung  hoherer  und  niederer  Schulen 
und  ihre  Aufgaben.  8vo.  Leipzig.  $0.90 

J.  Frev.  Der  rationelle  Schultisch  als 
das  hauptsdchlichste  VeHdUungsmittel 
der  schlecliten  Brustenlnnckelung ,  der 
schlechtoi  Haltang  und  der  Huckgrats- 
verknunmung.  With  8  plates.  8vo. 
Zurich.     $0.55 

A.  Freimund.  Ueber  korperliche  Zilch 
tigung  beim  Unten'icht.  8vo.  Leipzig, 
$6.40 

John  GiU.  Introductory  Text- Book  to 
School  Education,  Method,  and  School 
Management.  8vo.  London.  Cloth, 
$1.20 

J.  S.  Hart.  In  the  School-Room;  or, 
Chapters  in  the  Philosophij  of  Educa- 
tion.    12mo.     Phila.     Cloth.     $L23 

A.  Holbrook.  School  Management.  12mo. 
Cincinnati.     Cloth.     $1.50 

Fr.  S.  Jewell.  School  Government:  A 
Practical  Treatise,  presenting  a 
Thorough  Discussion  of  its  Facts, 
Principles,  and  their  Applications; 
with  Critiques  upon  Current  Theories 
of  Punishment,  and  Schemes  of  Ad- 
ministration. 12mo.  N.  Y.  Cloth.  $1.50 

J.  Johonnot.  School  Houses.  8vo.  N.  Y. 
Cloth.     $3.00 

P.  W.  Joyce.  A  Hand-Boole  of  School 
Management  and  Meth,ods  of  Teach- 
ing.    r2mo.     London.     $0.80 

C.  Kehr.  Die  Praxis  der  Volksschule. 
Ein  Wegweiser  zur  FiXhrung  einer  ge- 
regellen  SchuldiscipUn  und  zur  Erthei- 
lung  eines  methodischen  Scfoulunter- 
richtes  fiir  Volksschullehrer  und  fiXr 
Solche,  die  es  werden  ivollen.  8vo. 
Gotha.     $1.50 

John    Kennedy.      Tlie   School   and   the 
Family:     The  Ethics   of  School  Dela- 
tions.    12mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.00 
Abounds   in    good   sense   and  in  practical 

suggestions. 

C.  Klett.  Der  Lehrer  ohne  Stock.  Gegoi 
die  korperliche  Strafe  in  der  Schule. 
8vo.     Stuttgart.     $0.30 

G.  Kopp.     Dlustrirtes  Hand-  und  Kach- 
scJilagebuch  der  vorzUglichsten   Lehr 
und  Veranschanlichmigsmittel  aiis  dem 
G'esammtgehiete  der  Erziehung  und  des 


Unterrichts  filr  Fachleute  an  Lehran- 
stalien  und  Instituten  jeder  .A.rt,  insbe- 
sondere  anVolksschulen,  Forfbildungs- 
schulen,  hoheren  B'urgerschulen,  Leh- 
rerseminarien,  Realschulen,  Gymna- 
sien.  etc.  With  576  woodcuts.  8vo. 
Bensheim.     $2.75 

F.  Kiichler.  Die  Deform  unserer  Volks- 
scJiule  in  hygienischer  Richtung.  8vo. 
Bern.    $0.25 

L.  W.  Leeds.  A  Treatise  on  Ventilation. 
Comprising  Seven  Lectures  delivered, 
before  the  Franklin  Distitute.  shon-ing 
the  great  leant  of  improred  nie/Jtnils  of 
Veuillalinii  ill  our  Jiiiililings.  giriiig  t/ic 
chemicid  and  jiliysiologiral  jinnuss  tf 
respiration,  comparing  the  ejt'tctsof  the 
various  methods  <f  heating  and  lighting 
upon  the  ventilation,  etc.  8vo.  lllustr. 
N.  Y.    Cloth.     $2.50 

D.  F.  Lincoln.  Scltool  and  Lidustrial 
Hygiene.  16mo.  Phila.  Paper.  $0.50 
Should  be  studied  by  every  teacher. 

Horace  Mann.  Lectures  and  Annual 
Reports  on  Education.  New  Edit.  8vo. 
Boston.     Cloth.     $3.00 

F.  Migerka.  Das  Unten-ichtswesen  in 
de)i  Vereinigten  Staaten.  8vo.  Wien. 
$0.60 

T.  Morrison.  Manual  of  School  Manage- 
ment.   12mo.     (ilasgow.    Cloth.     $1.60 

John  F.  Moss.  Handbook  of  the  Nen^ 
Code  of  Regulations,  1880;  and  other 
Official  Instructions,  Orders,  and  Cir- 
culars, of  the  Education  Departmoit. 
12mo.     London.     $0.80 

Felix  Narj  oux.  Reglement  pour  la  con- 
struction et  V ameublement  des  maisons 
d'ecole,  arrete  par  le  Ministre  de  V In- 
struction Puhliqiie,  suivi  dhtn  Oom- 
mentaire  et  des  plans  explicatifs.  8vo. 
Paris.     $0.75 

F.  M.  Norman.  The  Schoolmaster's 
Drill  Assistant:  A  Manual  for  Ele- 
mentary Schools.  Boys\  Girls\  or 
Mixed;  by  aid  of  which  any  Teacher 
may  easily  Drill  Jiis  or  her  own 
Scholars.  Being  Military  Drill  simpli- 
fied and  adapted  for  School  2ise;  u-ith 
'Class  Drill,  Dual  Desk  Drill,  and  other 
useful  Exercises,  specially  prepared  for 
Schools.  lUustr.  12mo.  London.  Cloth. 
$0.80 

Charles  Northend.  The  Teacher''s  A.isist- 
ant.  or  Hints  <uid  Methods  in  School 
Discipline  and  Instruction;  being  a 
Series  of  Familiar  Letters  to  one  enter- 
ing upon  the  teacher's  work.  12mo. 
N.  Y,    Cloth.    $1.50 

321 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


W.  H.  Payne.  Chaptei's  on  School  Super- \ 
rhion.  A  practical  Treatise  on  Super- 
iiiteiidence;  Arranging  Courses  of 
Study;  Tlie  Preparation  and  Use  of 
Blanks,  Hecords.  and  Reports;  Exam- 
inations for  Froniotions,  etc.  12rao. 
Cincinnati.     Cloth.     SI. 25 

Jas.  Pillans.  Rationale  of  Discipline  in 
tlie  High  School  of  Edinburgh.  8vo. 
Edinburgh.     Cloth.     $2. (10 

L.  A.  Prevost-Paradol.  Du  Rule  de  la 
Famille  dans  I  Education.  8vo.  Paris. 
$0.90 

Ambroise  Rendu.  Code  ■^inicer.vlaire  on 
lois,  slatuts  et  ri'glemenls  de  i'  Unicersite 
de  France  jusqu'au  ler  Janvier  18iG. 
Hvo.    Paris.    14.50 

A.  R'ant.    IFijgicne  Scolaire,  Influence 

de  I'Ecole  sur  la   Saute  des  Enfants. 

18mo.    Paris.    $1.05 
L'Hygii'ne  et  I'EdHcotion  dans  les 

Tnternats,  Lj/cces.  College'^,  I'l'iisioimts. 

MaLsons  d' Education,  Ecoles^'onnoles.  [ 

Ecoles  Speciales,  Universites,  etc.  Kvo. 

Paris. 
E.     R.     Robson.      School    ArcUitectitre. 

Practical Inforinalion  on  thfl'hnnring, 

Designing.  'Building,    and  Furnishing' 

of  School- Houses.     8vo.     Illiisti'.     Lmi 

don.     Cloth.     $0.30 
S.  Roggero.    Le  imstre  scuole  considerate 

in  relazinne  coll'  igiene  e  coUa  morale. 

Hvo.     Vilerbo.     i^'.'M 
N.  W.  T.  Root.     School  Anmsenients;  or 

how  to  make    the   school   interesting. 


Embracing  simple  rules  for  m  Hilar jj 
and  gym)iastic  exercises,  and  hitits 
upon  the  general  managemeid  of  the 
school-room.    12mo.   N.  Y.  Cloth.  '$1.00 

M.  Mc.N.  Walsh.  Tlie  Lawyer  in  the 
School-Room.  Comprising  the  Lews 
of  All  the  States  on  important  Educa- 
tional Subjects.  12mo.  N.  Y.  Cloth. 
*1.00 
.Vn    ailmirable  book. 

W.  H.  WeUs.  The  Graded  School.  A 
Graded  Course  of  htstruciion  for 
PidAic  Schools:  u-ith  copious  pi-acticcd 
Directions  to  Teacheis,  and  Observa- 
tions on  Primary  Schools,  School  Dis- 
cipline, School  Records,  etc.  12rao.  N.Y. 
Cloth.     $1.00 

J.  P.  Wickersham.  School  Economy.  A 
Treatise  on  the  Preparation,  Organi- 
zation, Employments,  Government,  and 
Authorities  of  Schools.  Pimo.  Phila. 
Cloth.    4^1.50 

G.  Wilson.  A  Handbook  of  Sanitary 
Scit'iice.    VImo.    London.    Cloth.   $3.40 

L.  Wintrebert.  Consultation  hyginiique 
II  propos  df  hi  Coiislriiction  el  de  I'A- 
-meub'enwnl  d'line  Ecole  primaire  ii 
Lille.     8v(>.     Paris.     $0.55 

A.  Wolpert.  llieorie  und.  Praxis  der 
Ventilation  nnd  Heizung.  8vo.  2  vols. 
Hraunschweig.     $7.35 

W.  T.  Wylie.  Lessons  and  Prayn-s  for 
till'  Srlmol-h'oom.  8vo.  Philadelphia. 
(  loth.     $3.0(( 

T.  Ziller.  Die  Rigiemng der  Kinder.  8vo. 

I     Leipzig.     $0.  "•') 


VI.   HISTORY  OF  EDUCATION. 

Histories;    Bic>graphics  and   Memoirs;     Descni)tions    of   Edu- 
cational Systems;    Catalogues  and  Reports. 

H.  Andr6.   Xos  Madres,  hier.  Etudes  sur 

lesprogri's  de  Veducalion  et  sur  les  deve- 

loppe)nents  de   rinslructio)i  populaire 

en  Fra)ice,  depuis  les  temps  les  plus  re- 

cidrs  jusqn'a  .1.  J.   Rousskau.     IGmo. 

Paris.     $1.25 
Kos  Maitres,  aujourd'hui.     Etudes 

sur    les   progri'S    de    I' education,    les 

methodes  et  les  i'lablissements  de  tons 

les  degres  en  France  depuis  .1.  J.  Rors- 

iiKM'  jus(pi'<i  nos  jours.    Pinio.     2  vols. 

Paris.     $1.75 

M.  Arnold.      Higher  Schools  and    Uni- 
rersities  in,   Germany.     8vo.     London. 
Cloth.     $2.00 
322 


H.  Barnard.  ili-rmun  Tmchers  and 
Educational  Reformers:  Memoirs  of 
Emineid  Teachers  and  F.ducators  u-ith 
contributions  to  the  History  o/'  Fdnra- 
tion  in  Germany.  8vo.  Hartford.  Cloth. 
$3.50 

French  Teachers,  Schools,  and  Ped- 
agogy —  Old  and  Xeu\  8vo.  Hart- 
ford.    Cloth.     $3.50 

English    Teachers,   Educators,  and 

Promotors  of  Education.  8vo.  Hart- 
ford.    Cloth.     $3.50 

American  Teachers,  Educalors  ainl 

Benefactors  of  Ediication.  With  Por- 
traits. 8vo.  5  vols.  Haitfurd.  Per 
vol.     $3.. 50 


THE  DICTIOXAKV  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


H.  Barnard.  Festalozzi  and  Swiss  Ped- 
agogy: Meiiioir,  andEdnratltmal  Frin- 
c'iples,  3Iel/iods,  (uul  liijiainfr  i,f  John 
hENKY  Pkstalozzi,  and  JiKujriqihical 
Sketches  of  seceral  of  his  .isststants 
and  Disciples;  together  with  Selections 
from  /lis  Pidjlicalions.  and  Accounts 
of  ScJiooIs  and  Teachers  in  Siciizerland. 
3vo.     Hartford.     Cloth.    $3.50 

A.  Beer  u.  F.  Hoclie?ger.  Die  Fort- 
scJiritte  <lrs  Untirrirlitsiresens  in  den 
CuUurstaaten  Kitropa's. 

I.  Das  UnterricJdsicesen    in   Frank- 
reich  tuid  Oesferreich.  8vo.  Wieu.  S4.40 

II.  1.   Das    Unterrichiswesen  Russ- 
lands  und  Belgiens.    8vo.    Wien.   $1.83 

II.    2.    Das     Unferrichtsweseti    der 
Schweiz.    Svo.    Wien.    12.63 

E.  Biber.  IT.  Festalozzi  and  his  Fhni 
ff  Education;  an  Account  nf  his  Lifr 
and  M'rilings,  icith  copious  F.'tracts 
from  his  Works.  Svo.  Loudon.  Cloth. 
.Vbout  $2.20  I 

E.  Biot.  Essai  sur  r Histoire  de  I' Listr ac- 
tion Fuhlique  en  Chine  et  do  la  Corpo- 
ration des  Leitn's,  depvis  les  anciens 
temps  jusqu'd  nos  jours.  8vo.  Paris. 
•■r.i.HO 

Ed.  Bock.  Der  Tolksschul-  Unterricht 
>^v(i.     Llreslau.    .?2.20 

J.  Boehm.  Geschichfe  der  Flidagogik 
mit  CharakterhUdern  hercorragender 
Fiidagogeii  und  Zeiten.  Als  Comnaen- 
tar  zu  seiner  " Kurzgefassten  Geschichle 
der  Fiidagogik."'  Svo.  2  vols.  Niirn- 
berg.     $2,115 

Wm.  Oland  Bourne.  Hi.<^torij  of  the  Pub- 
lic School  tSocietg  of'  the  City  of  Xeiri 
York.     8vo.    N.  Y.'  Cloth.     $o.00        j 

Joh.  Bruestlein.  Luther's  Einfluss  auf 
rhis]'olksscJiulu-esen  iind  den  Religions- 
unterrichf.     Svo.    Jeua.     $0.75 

0.  Bruckbach.  Wegweise)-  durch  die 
Ceschichle  der  Fiidagogik.  Svo.  Leip- 
zig.    $3.55 

Aujustin  Cochin.  Pestcdozzi.  Sa  Tie, 
.ses  Oeuvres,  ses  Methodes  d' Instruction 
et  d' Education.    12mo.     Paris.     $0.50 

E.  CelSiia.  Sforia  deUa  Pedagogia  ita- 
liauii  da  Fittagora  at  di  nostri.  Svo. 
M  llano.     $2.00 

C.  fiompayre.    Histoire  critique  des  Doc- 

irines'  de  V Education  en  France  depuis 

le  seizieme  sii^cle.    Svo.    2  vols.   Paris. 

$2.45 

"Le  livre  de  M.  Compavre  est  ci-rtaine- 

ment  uii  des  plua  complets  et  des  plus  interes- 

-ants  qu'on  puisse  lire." 

RcTtie  des  Deux  Mondes: 


V.  Cousin.  On  the  State  of  Education  in 
Holland,  as  regards  Schools  for  the 
W(n-kiiiq  Gasses  and  the  Poor.  12mo. 
Loudon.'    Cloth.     About  $3.00 

Report  on.  the  State  of  Public  In- 
struction in.  Prussia.    12mo.    London. 
About  $2.00 
These  repons  led  to  a  reorganization  of  the 

school  system   of  France,  and  had  a  marked 

influence    on    the   educational   policy   of    this 

country. 

F.  Cramer.  Geschichte  der  Erziehung 
und  des  Unterrichts  ini  Alterthume. 
Svo.     2  vols.    Elbeifeld.     $6.60 

Geschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des 

UnterriclUs  in  d.en  Niederlanden  wdh- 
rend  des  Mittelalters,  mit  Zm-ilckfUh- 
rung  auf  die  allgemeinenliterarischen 
und  pddagogischen  Verhdltnisse  jener 
Zeit.    Svo.    Elberfeld.    $L85 

Frdr.  Dittos.  Geschichte  der  Erziehung 
und  des  Unteti-ichtes.  Svo.  Leipzig. 
$1.10 

J.  Donaldson.     Lectures  on  the  History 
of  Education  inPrussia  and  England, 
and  on  kindred  Topics.     12mo.     Edin- 
burgh.    Cloth.    $1.40 
A  book  of  great  vulue. 

M.  Duschak.  Schulgesetzgehung  und 
Methodik  der  alten  Israeliten,  nebst 
einem  geschichtlichen  Anhang  und 
eiuer  Beilage  ilber  hohere  israelitische 
Lehranstalten.     Svo.     Wien.     $1.35 

Educational  Code  of  the  PrussianNation. 
With  its  Present  Form.  18mo.  London. 
$1.00 

W.  Everett.  On  the  Cam.  Lectures  on 
the  University  of  Cambridge  in  Eng- 
land.   12mo.    Cambridge.    Cloth.  SI. 00 

W.  Eraser.  Tlie  Life  and  Educational 
Principles  of  t>aviid  Stout,  Esq., 
Founder  of  the  Training  System  of 
Education.  With  portrait.  Svo.  London. 
Cloth.     $2.50 

Th.  Fritz.  Esquisse  d'un  Systeme  com- 
plet  d'  Instruction  et  d' Education,  et  d^ 
leur  Histoire.  Svo.  3  vols.  Strassburg. 
$4.50 

Fred.  J.  Furnivall.  Education  in  Early 
England.  Some  Notes  used  as  fore- 
words to  a  CoUectiou  of  Treatises  on 
^•Manners  and  Meals  in  Olden  Times''', 
for  the  Early  English  Text  Society. 
Svo.    Londou.     $U.4i» 

M.  Giordano.  Dell'  istruzione  pubblica 
in  Italia  neisuoi  rapporti  economici, 
morali  e  religiosi.  Ossercazioni  e 
proposte.  Parte  L  16mo;  Napoli. 
$0.75 

323 


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James  Grant.     Tlie  History  of  the  Burgli 
Schools   of  Scotland,    bvo.      London. 
Cloth.     $3.V0 
W.  N.  Hailmann.     Twelve  Lectures  on 
the  History  of  Pedagogy,  delivered  he- 
fore  the  Cincinnati  Teaclteis^  Associa- 
tion.   I'imo.    Cincinnati.    Cloth.    $U.75 
W.  T.  Harris.     Annual  Reports  of  the 
Schools  of  St.  Louis.    8vo.    St.  Louis. 
Cloth.     Each    $1.50 
These  Reports  .ire  among  the  most  valu- 
able educational  documents   published  in  this 
country. 

Ja.  Morgan  Hart.  German  Universities; 
A  Jiecord  of  Personal  Experience  and 
a  Critical  Comparison  of  the  System  of 
Higher  Education  in  Germany  vith 
those  of  England  and  the  United  States. 
I'imo.    N.  Y.    Cloth.    $1.75 

W.  B.  Hazen.  TJte  School  and  the  Army 
i)i  Germany  and  Fi-ance.  With  a 
Diary  of  Siege  Life  at  Versailles.  I'imo. 
N.  y.     Cloth.    $2.50 

H.  Heppe.  Has  Schulwesen  des  Mittel- 
aU&s  und  dessen  Reform  im  secli- 
zehnten  Jahrhundert.  8vo.  Marburg. 
10.65 

C.  Hippeau.  V Instruction  PuUique  en 
Angleterre.     12mo.    Paris.    $0.60 

V Instruction    PuUique    dans    les 

Etats   dn    Nord,  —  Suede,    Norwege, 
Hanemark.    12mo.    Paris.    $1.40 

H Instruction    Publique    en    Alle- 

magne.    12mo.    Paris.    $L25 

V Instruction  Puhlique  aux  Etats 

Unis.     12mo.     Paris.     $1.40 

V Instruction   Puhlique    en    Italie 

12mo.    Paris.    $1.25 
r  Instruction  Puhlique  pendant  la 

Revolution.     12mo«    Paris.     $1.40 
All  the  books  on  education  written  by  this 
author  are  trustworthy  and  valuable. 

John    S.  Hittell.     A  Brief  History   of 
Culture.     12nio.    N.  Y.     Cloth.    $1.50 
V.  A.  Huber.     The  Engl i.-^h  Unicersilir.'i^. 


Sophia  Jex-Blake.  A  Visit  to  some 
American  Scliools  and  Colleges.  8vo. 
London.     Cloth.    $1.75 

F.  E.  Keller.  Geschichte  des  preussi- 
sclien  Vollisschulwesens.  8vo.  Berlin. 
$2.'J5 

C.  Kehr.  Geschichte  der  Methodik  des 
deutschen  Volksschulunterrichls.  Untei- 
Mitwirkung  einer  Anzahl  Schulmiinner. 
8vo.     3  vois.    Gotha.     $6.60 

L.  Kellner.  ErziehungsgeschicMe.  8vo. 
Essen.     $2.95 

Frdr.  Korner.  Geschichte  der  Pddago- 
gik  ton  den  ixltesten  Zeiten  bis  auf  die 
Gegenu-art.  Ein  Handhuchfilr  Geist- 
liche  und  Lelirer  heidei-  Conjessionen. 
8vo.     Leipzig.     $1.50 

Herman  Kruesi.  Pestalozzi:  His  Life, 
Work,  and  Influence.  Willi  portraits 
and  illustr.  8vo.  Cincinnati.  Cloth. 
$2.25 

Ja.  Leitch.  Practical  Educationists  and 
their  System  of  Teaching-  12mo.  Glas- 
gow.   Cloth.    $3.U0 

(Locke;   Pestalozzi;    P)ell;  Lancaster;  Wil- 

derspin;  Stow;  Spencer.) 

Letters  from  Hofunjl  hy  a  Parent  on  the 

Educational    Institutions    of    Fki.len- 

BEKG.     12mo.     London.     Cloth.    $2.25 

Contains  a  series  of  letters  written  by  M. 

C.  WoODiiKiDCE,   and  originally   published  in 

the   Annu/s  of  Education, 

Fred.  Lorenz.  The  Life  of  Aleuin. 
Translated  b)'  Jank  Mary  Hlke.  12mo. 
London.     $0.75 

Horace  Mann.  Annual  Reports  on  Edu- 
ni/ini,  from  }f^2<)  tolSm.  8vo.  Boston. 
Cloth.'   ?.1.0() 

Mrs.  Horace  Mann.  The  Life  of  Horao' 
3Iann.  Hi/  his  Wife.  8vo.  Boston. 
Clotli.     $3.00 

Baroness  Marenholtz  -  Buelow.  Remi- 
niscences if  Eredcric  Frochel.  Trans- 
lated by  Mrs.  Hokace  Mann.  12mo. 
Boston.     Cloth.     $1.50 


An    abridged    translation    edited    ^,'/  H.  Mascher.     Has  deutsche  Schulwesen 
—    '    '-  "         ...       i-„i....       jidch  seiner  historischen  Entwickelung 

und  den  Forderungen  der  Gegenu-art. 
Vom  Standpunkte  der  Staats-  und  Ge- 
meindeveru-altung,  sowie  der  National- 
dkonomie  dargestellt  und  heleuchtet. 
8vo.  Eisenach.  $1.50 
J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn.  An  Old  Educa- 
tional Refm-nier;  —  Hr.  Andrew  Bell. 
Vlmo.  Jlondou.  Cloth.  $1.40 
Everardo  Micheli.  Storia  delta  Pedaqo- 
gia  ilaliana  dal  tempo  del  Eomani  a 
tutto  it  secolo  XVIII.  IGmo.  lorino. 
$1.50 


F.A.Newman.  8vo.  3  vols.  London. 
Cloth.     About  $12.00 

G.  P.  R.  James.  On  the  Educational  In- 
stitutions of  Gennany.  12mo.  London. 
Cloth.     About  $3.00 

Education  in  Japan.  A  Series  of  Let- 
tei-s  addressed  by  prominent  Americans 
to  Arinori  Mori,  Japanese  Minister. 
r2mo.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $1.50 

Thomas  Jefferson  and  J.  C.  Cabell.  Let- 
ters im  Early  Hisloru  of  the  Unti-ersity 
of  Virginia.  8vo,  llichmond.  Cloth. 
$5.00  ■ 

324 


THE  DICTIONABY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


J.  Michelet.  Nos  Fils.  8vo.  Paris.  11.25 

(Livre  III :  Rabelais;  Montaigne;  Come- 
nius;  The  Jesuits;  Port  Royal;  Fenelon;  Locke; 
Rousseau;  Pestalozzi;  Froebel.) 

Frederic  Monnier.  V Instruction  Fopir 
laire  en  AHemagne,  en  Suisse  et  daiis 
les  Pays  Scandiuai-es.  8vo.  Paris 
$2.05 

J.  Morley.  Roui^seau.  8vo.  2  vols.  Lon- 
don.   Clotli.    $9.00 

Strugg'e   for  National  Education. 

8vo.    Loudon.    Cloth.    $1.20 

J.  Bass.  MuUinger.  The  Schools  oj 
Charles  the  Great  and  the  Restoration 
of  Education  in  the  Ninth  Century. 
Svo.    London.    Cloth.    $3.00 

Jolm  Henry  Newman.  Historical  SM- 
ches  of  Universities.  12mo.  3  vols. 
London.     Cloth.    $6.30 

Jules  Paroz.    HiMoire  UniverseUe  de  la 
Pedagogic.    16nio.    Paris.     $1.50 
For  a  work  in  small  compass,  this   is  the 

best  History  of  Education  within   my  knowl- 
edge. 

W.  H.  Payne.  A  Short  History  of  Edu- 
cation: being  a  repnnt  of  the  article 
^'Education"  from  the  ninth  edition  of 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  16mo 
Syracuse.    Cloth.    $0.50 

F.  W.  Pfeifer.  Die  Volksschule  des  19 
Jahrhunderfs  iii  Biographien  hervor 
ragender  Schutmiinrier.  Svo.  NUi-nberg. 
$3.40 

Philobiblius  (Dr.  L.  P.  Brockett).  History 

and  Progress   of  Education.     12mo. 

N.  Y.    Cloth.    Si.50 

E.  H.   Quick.    Essays  on  Educational 

Reformers^    12nio.    Cincinnati.  Cloth. 

$2;oo 

(Schools  of  the  Jesuits;  Ascham,  Mon- 
taigne, Ratich,  Milton;  Comenius;  Locke; 
Rousseau's  Emile;  Basedow  and  the  Phi- 
lanthropin;  Pestalozzi;  Jacotot;  Herbert 
Spencer;  Thoughts  and  Suggestions  about 
Teaching  Children;  Some  Remarks  about 
Moral  and  Religious  Education;  Appendix. 

Josiah  Quincy.  A  History  of  Harvard 
Unioersity,  Svo.  2  vols.  Boston. 
Cloth. 

3.  S.  Eandall.  History  of  the  Common 
School  Syston  of  the  State  of  Neic 
York.    Svo.     N.  Y.    Cloth.    $3.00 

K.  von  Kaumer.  Geschichte  der  Pdda- 
gogik  vomWiedei-aufhl'dhen  klassischer 
StudienhisaufunsereZeit.  Svo.  4  vols. 
Giitersloh.  $9.15.  Singly:  I.  Das  Mit- 
telalter  bis  zn  Montaigne,  $2.00  — 
n.  Vom  Tode  Baco's   bis  zum  Tode 


PesfalozzVs.     $2.30  —  IIL    Unterricht. 

$2.65—  IV.  Diedeutschen  Universitiiten. 

$2.20 
Copious  translations  from  this  work  are  to 
be  found  in  Bakxard's  American  Journal  of 
Education, 
J.  E.  T.  Rogers.    Education  in  Oxford: 

Its  method,  its  aids  and  its  rewards. 

12mo.    London. 
E.  SassL   Eistruzione  pubblica  in  Torino 

dal  mediwco  ai  tiempi  nostri.    Con  note 

e  documenti,    Svo.     Torino.    $1.35 

H.  I.  Schmidt.  History  of  Education, 
anciod  andmodern.  ISmo.  N.Y.  Cloth. 
$0.75 

K.  Schmidt.  Bie  Geschichte  der  Pdda- 
gogik  dargestellt  in  iceUgeschichtlicher 
Entu-ickehing  undim,organischen  Zu- 
sammenhange  mit  dern  Culturleben  der 
Volker.  Vermehrt  und  verbessei't  von 
Wich.Lanre.  Svo.  4vols.Cothen.  $11.00 
Singly:  I.  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik  in 
der  vorchristlichen  Zeit.  $2.20  —  IL 
Geschichte  der  Pddagogik  in  der  christ- 
lichen  Zeit.  $1.85—  111.  Geschichte  der 
Pddagogik  von  Luther  bis  Pestalozzi. 
$2.95  —  IV.  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik 
von Pestalozzibis  zur  Gegenwart.  $3.30 

Geschichte  der  Erziehung  und  des 

Unten-ichts.  Filr  Schul-  und  Predigt- 
amtscandidaien.  filr  Volksschullehrer, 
filr  gebildete  Eltern  und  Erzieher  ilber- 
sichilich  dargestelll.  Hrsg.  von  WiCH. 
Lange.    Svo.     Cothen.    $1.50 

J.  K.  Shuttleworth.  Four  Periods  of 
Public  Educatio)i,  1832,  1839.  1846, 
1862.     Svo.     London.     Cloth.     $4.90 

J.  H.  Smart.  Indiana  Schools  and  the 
Men  who  have  worked  in  them,  12mo. 
Cincinnati.     Cloth.    $1.00 

Goodwin  Smith.  The  Reorganization  of 
the  Uninersity  of  Oxford.  16mo.  Lon- 
don.    $0.80 

A.  P.  Stanley.  Life  and  Con-espondence 
of  Ihomas  Arnold,  Svo.  2  vols.  N.Y. 
$2.50 

Howard  Staunton.  The  Great  Schools 
of  England.  An  Account  of  the  Foun- 
dations, Endou^nents,  and  Discipline 
of  the  chief  Seminaries  of  Learning 
in  England.  Svo.  London.  Cloth. 
$3.00 

Hemricli  Steffens.  German  University 
Life.  Ihe  Story  of  my  Career  as  a 
Student  and  Professor.  With  Per- 
sonal Remembrances  of  Goethe,  Schil- 
ler, Novalis,  and  Others.  Translated 
by  W,  L.  Gage.  l2vo.  Phila.  Cloth. 
$1.25 

325 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


A.  Stockl.  Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  der\ 
PMagogik.    8vo.    Mainz.    Sa.lO 

Karl  Strack.  Geschichte  des  dentschenl 
Volhsschnln-eseiis.  8vo.  Giitersloh.  $2.0.")! 

W.  B.  S.  Taylor.  History  of  the  U)iice>  - 
silj  (if  Dublin:  Its  Origin,  Frogj'ess. 
and  J'resent  Vonditiou.  lllustr.  8vo. 
London.     Clotli.     $2.50 

And.  Ten  Brook.  American  State  Uni- 
i:ersities;  tlieir  Origin  and  Progress.l 
A  History  of  Congresifional  University] 
Land-Grants:  a  particular  Accnimt  <f 
tie  Rise  and  Derelopini'iit  iflhr  I'ni  [ 
cersity  of  Midi  igan ;  und  Hints  toiniril 
tlie  Future  of  tite  American  University 
System.   8v6.    Cincinnati.    Cloth.  $3..iu 

Augustin  Thery.  Histoire  de  I'Educa 
tioii  en  France,  depuis  le  Ve  sii'i-le 
jusqu'  (I  18)8.  Kvo.  2  vols.  Paris.  S4.2(i 

E.  B.  Tyler.  Frimitive  Uidture.  8vo. 
2  vols.     N.  Y.     Cloth.     $7.00 


A.  Vogel.  G-escMchte  der  Fiidagogik  als 
Wisse)ischaft.     8vo.    Giitersloh.    $2.75 

G.  A.  Walton.     Tteport  of  Examinations 

j  in  Norfolk  County,  Mass.  8vo.  Boston. 
Paper."    $0.50 

Adalb.  Weber.  Hie  Geschichte  der  Volks- 
schulpddagogik  and  der  Kleinkinder- 
erziehung,  mii  hesonderer  Beriicksich- 
tigung  der  Letzieren.  Fin  Handbuch 
filr  Lelirer  und  Lehrerinnen,  sowie 
zum   Gebrauche  in  Seminarien.    8vo. 

I     Eisenacli.     $1.85 

L.  Wiese.  Has  hohere  Schrdwesen  in 
Preussen.    Historischstatistische  Bar- 

I  stellung.  ini  A uftrage  des  Ministers  der 
geistliclien,  Uiderrichts-  undMedicinal- 

'  Angelegenheiten  herausgegeben.  With 
illustr.  8vo.  3  vols.  Berlin.  SU.fiO 
—  German  Letters  on  FnglisJi.  Educa- 
tion. Written  during  an  E<hiralional 
Tour  in  187(i.  Hvo.  London.  Cloth. 
$2.1/0 


VII.  MISCELLANEOUS  EDUCATIONAL  LITERATURE. 
Educational   Periodicals.      Proceedings    of    Educational    Asso- 
ciations; Mixed   Educational   Waitings ;    Reviews. 


1.   Educational   Periodicals. 

(The  fifjuros  —  o.  ^.4 18  —  denote  the  number 
of  issues  i)er  year,  and  the  size  of  tliese.j 

.-Ulgemeine  deutsclie  Lehrerzeitung.    Bi:k- 

TUKi.T.    Leipzig.    5214.     $2.40  net. 
American  Joururd  of  Education.     Bak- 

NAun.  418.  Hartford.  $4.00 
y/u  American  Jourr.jl  of  Ktiiication  —  from 
1856  to  1880  —  consists  of  30  volumes  (over 
26,000  pa^es),  with  800  wood  cuts  of  struc- 
tures for  educ.itionil  purposes,  and  130  por- 
traits of  eminent  educators  and  teachers. 
Clolh.  S135;  half  goat.  $164.  Single  vols., 
cloth.  $5.00;  half  goat,  $5.50 

A  complete  set  of  this  foiirnal  is  invalu- 
able. It  is  a  mine  of  information  on  educational 
topics  of  every  sort:  historical,  biographical, 
practical,  statistical.  American  subjects  are  co- 
piously treated.  The  various  works  published 
by  Mr.  B.\RNARD  are  made  up  of  selections  from 
bis  Jaurnal.  Unfortunately,  the  same  matter 
IS  made  to  do  service  under  different  titles;  so 
ibat  for  educational  libraries,  the  more  econo- 
mical plan  is  to  buy  a  complete  set  of  thf 
fotirnal  rather  tb  m  the  republications  under 
special  titles. 

Aiii'^rican  Journal  of  Education.  Mkk- 
wiN.    1214.    St.  LoiilH.    $1.00 

Jiulletia  Offlciel  dei'  Instruction  Frimaire 
da  D  '^partement  de  la  Seine.  1 2 1 8.  Pa- 
ris.   $2.00 

''nuada    Rlncationnl    Monthly.     .\i>am. 
1218.    Toronto.     $1.50 
326 


Canada  School  .Journal.    12|4.    Toronto. 

$1.00 
Centralhlatt  filr  die   IMeirichts-Verwal- 

tunginPreassen.  1218.  Berlin.  $2.10  net. 
Cinnmon  School  Teacher.     Ckisler    and 

FiEi.o.s.    1218.    Bedford.     $1.00 
Cornelia.     Zeitschrift  filr  huasUche  Er- 

ziehung.  Pu.z.  10i8.  Leipzig.  $1.35  net. 
Le  Conrrier    de    VEnseignem^nt    Libre. 

1218.     Paris     $3.60 
Eclectic  Teacher.  CHASi:and  Yaxce.  12 18. 

Lexington.    $1.00 
L'Ecole  Laiqae.    Ferae  hebdomadaire  de 

I'Instr action  popukiire  et  Idiqne.    St. 

Maktin.    5218.    Paris.    $2.40 
L'Ecole  Nouvelle.    lierue  de  f  Education 

inh'grale,   scientifique,  induslrielh;  ar- 
tist tque  et  de  la' reforme  p''dagogique. 

Fkanooux.    1218.    Paris.    5^2.10 
Education.  Bicknelt..  (5)8.  Boston.  $4  00 
L' Education.     Journal  des   Ecoles   pri- 

raaires.    5218.    Paris.    $3.00 
Educatinnid  .Tnurnal  of  Virginia.     Fo.x. 

1218.    Uicliniond.    #1.00 
Tlie  Educational  Neu:s.     A  Weekly   Re- 
cord and  Review.     5214      Edinburgh. 

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Frziehuiigs- Blatter.  Klemm.  1214.  Mil- 
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Journal  of  Education,  Xeu^  England  and 
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.Journal  of  WomOLS  Educational  Union. 
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Kindergarten  Messenger  and    the    New 
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Magazin     fur     Lehr-     und    Lernmittel. 

Schroder.    2414.    Leipzig.    $1.20  net. 
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Maryland  School  Journal.     Nkwhi.i.  and 

Edwards.    12  |  8.    Baltimore.    $L2.") 
New    York  School  J(nirnal.     Kei.i.ogg 

52  1 2.    N.  y.    $1.50 
Normal  Teacher.   Shkrrili..    12|s.D.in 

villc.    $1.00 
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berg.    $1.35  net. 
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ham.    1218.    Lancaster.    $1.50 
Der  praktische    Schulmann.     Richtek. 

818.    Leipzig.    $3.00  net. 
Primary  Teacher.   Sheldon.  12  |  8.   Bos- 
ton.   $1.00 
The  Princeton  Periew.   C|8.    New  York. 

$2.00 
I         This  Review  is  noticeable  for  the  high  qual- 
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Uepertorium.  der  Pddagogik.      Heindl. 
1     1218.    Ulm.      $1.75  net. 
Jiei'ue    de     T Enseignement    Secondaire 
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Questions   of  national   education    are   dis- 
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Revue  Internationale  de  V Enseignement. 

.  DKEYFrs-BKiSAC.    1218.     Paris.     $7.2n 

Revue  Pedagogique.  Hanriot.  12|12 
Paris.     $2.70 

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tional Becord  and,  Review.  5214. 
Loudon.    $4.75  net. 

School  Bulletin  and  New  York  State 
Educational  .lournal.  Bardeen.  1214. 
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Te.Ms  .Journal  of  Education.  Hollixgs- 
worth.     1214."    Austin.    $2.00 

Wisconsin  .Journal  of  Eductdion.  Whit- 
ford.    12|8.     Madison.     $1.00 

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nasien.  '  Tomaschek.  1218.  Wieu. 
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2.    Proceedings  of  Educational 
Associations;  Mixed   Educa- 
tional Writings;  Reviews. 

American  Institulr  of  Instruction.  Lect- 
ures. IJostoii.  1830— 1880.  Each  about 
$1.01).  I'i'ice  variable  according  to  scare- 
it}  of  volumes. 

C.  W.  Bardeen.  f'onimon  School  Law 
for  Common  School  TeacJters.  To 
which  are  added  the  Questions  giren  at 
the  New  York  Examinations  for  Stale 
Certificates.      16mo.     Syracuse.     $0.50 

H.  Barnard.  Compulsory  School  Attend- 
ance.   12mo.   Hartford.    Clotli.    $1.00 

Official  Reports  —  as  Superintendent 

of  Common  Schools  in  Connecticut, 
1  vol.;  as  Commissioner  of  Fuldic 
Schools,  R.  L,  1  vol.;  as  Rationed  Com- 
mi.ssioner  of  Education,  3  vols.  Each 
volume,   8vo.    Cloth  ,'S1.50 

The  Bible  in  tlie  Public  Schools.  Argu- 
ments in  tlie  case  of  Jolm  D.  Minor  et 
at.  v.  Tlie  Board  of  Education  of  the 
City  of  Cincinnati  et  al.,  in  the  Su 
perior  Court  of  Cincinnati;  with  the 
Opinion  and.  Decision  of  the  Court. 
8vo.    Cincinnati.    $2.00 

Arguments     of    Messrs.    Ramsey, 

Sage,  and  King  in  the  above  case  'in 
fa  cor  of  tlie  nse  of  the  Bible.  8vo. 
Cincinnati.     $0.50 

Arguments  of  Messrs.  Stallo,  Hoadly. 

and  Matthews  in  the  above  case  against 
the  use  of  tlie  Bible.  8vo.  Cincinnati. 
$0.50 

Opinion  and  Decision  of  the  Supreme 

Court  of  Ohio  in  the  above  case.  8vo 
Cincinnati.     $0.25 

Goold  Brown.  Crammar  of  English 
(rraminars.    8vo.    N.  V.   Slieep.    $0.2 

Clias.  L.  Brace.  The  Dangerous  Classes 
of  New  York,  and  Tu-eidt/  Years'  Work 
among  them.   12mo.  N.  \.  Cloth.  $2.50 

Classical  Studies.  Bv  a  Scotch  Graduate. 
l2mo.     N.  Y.     $).oi) 

Conferences  pedagogiques  de  Far  is  en 
1880.  Rapports  '  et  prociis  -  verbaux. 
12mo.    I'aris.     $0.75 

Victor  Cousin.  Tj'clures  on  the  True,  the 
Jleautiful,  and  the  Good.  Translated 
by  WiiJuT.     8vo.  N.  Y.    Cloth.    $2.00 

Chas.  Dickens.  Schools  and  School- 
masters. Edited  by  T.  J.  Chapman. 
12mo.    N.  V.     ClolL.    SI. 25 

R.   Dulon.     Aus  Amerika  ilber  Schule, 
deulsche  Schule,  amerikanische  Schule, 
und (leutsch-amerikanische Schule.  8vo. 
I.i-ipzig.     $1.65 
328 


A.  du  Mesnil.  Congres  international  de 
Bruxelles.  Lettre  a  M.  Jules  Feiry, 
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beaux-ai-ts.    8vo.  Paris.   $0.75 

.Jahrbuch  des  Vereins  fiXr  wissenschaft- 
liche  Fixdagogik.  1880.  Zii.i.Eii.  8vo. 
Langensalza.     $1.85 

G.  Jest.  Les  Congres  des  Jnstituteurs 
allentands.    Paris.     12mo.     $0.75 

Horace  Mann.  Annual  Reports  on  Edu- 
cation from  1839 — 1848.  8vo.  Boston. 
Cloth.'  $3.00 

Lectures  and  Annual   Reports  on 

Education.   8vo.    Boston.    Cloth.  $3.0.) 

A.  D.  Mayo  and  T.  Vickers.     The  Bible 

in  the  j'uhlic  Schools.     12mo.     N.  Y. 

Pa])cr.    $0.25 
National  Educational  Association.     .\<l- 

dresses  and  Journal  of  Proceedings. 

1858—1880.     Each  $2.90 
Some   of  the  best  specimens  of  American 
pedagogy  are  to  be  found  in  these  volumes. 
Piidagogisches    JaMnich.      1880.     8vo. 

Wien.     $1.10 
Pddagogischer  Jahresbericht  von  1879. 

DiTTES.     8vo.     Leipzig.    $3.70 
Plato.      The  Republic.    IGmo.    London. 

Cloth.     $1.25 
"  C'cst  le  plus  beau  traite  d'education  qu'on 
ait  jamais  fail."  Roussf.au. 

The  Regents'  Questions.  1866  to  1876. 
Being  the  Quest  ions  fur  IliePrelintinary 
E.nrminations  fur  admission  to  the 
Vnicersity  of  the  Slate  <f  .Xeu-  York, 
prepared  by  the  Regents  of  tlie  Uni- 
versity. Compiled  by  D.  J.  Puatt.  18mo. 
Syracuse.    $1.00 

Regents'  Reports  on  the  Academies  and 
Colleires  ol  New  York  together  with  the 
Proceedings  and  Addresses  at  the  An- 
nual Convocations.  By  far  the  most 
complete  and  detailed  eilucational 
reports  ever  published.  1837 — 1876. 
8vo.  Albany.  Price  variable  accord- 
ing to  scarcity  of  volumes. 

S.  Smiles.  Thrift.  12mo.  N.Y.  Cloth.$1.25 
Slioiiki  be  on  every  teacher's  desk  for  oc- 
casional reading. 

Meta  Wellmer.  Deutsche  Erzieherinnen 
u)id  deren  WirkungskTeis.  8vo.  Leip- 
zig.    $0.75 

L.  Wiese.  Verordnungenimd  Gesetze  fiXr 
die  Jiiiheren  Schulen  in  Preussen.  8vo. 
2  vols.  Berlin.  $3.70.  —Singly:  I.  Die 
Schide.  $1.85.  I!.  Das  Lehramt  und 
der  Lehrer.     $1.85 

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ziehung,  nebst  einem  Anhang  uber  tiel- 
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THE  DICTIONAEY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTKUCTION 


NOTICE. 

It  is  due  to  Prof.  Payxb  to  state  here  that,  iu  addition  to  the 
publications  mentioned  in  the  List,  a  number  of  boojjs  of  the  highest 
importance  were  originally  enumerated  by  him;  the  fact,  however, 
that  they  are  out  of  print  and  difficult  to  obtain  dictated  their  omis- 
sion from  the  present  list,  which  is  designed  to  be  practically  avail- 
able, in  that  the  publications  mentioned  therein  are  such  as  can  easily 
be  obtained  through  any  bookseller. 

Copies  of  old  and  valuable  educational  pnljlications  needed  for 
libraries  may,  however,  be  obtained  friniuently  from  dealers  in 
second-hand  books,  and  the  undersigned  —  having  direct  connections 
Avith  all  countries  —  offer  their  services  in  procuring  such,  and  invite 
the  flUng  of  lists  of  publications  thus  desired  second-hand  as  oppor- 
tunity may  offer. 

To  the  statement  elsewhere  made  that  this  list  is  to  be  revised 
for  future  editions,  we  will  here  add  that  Prof.  Payne  proposes  also 
to  give  suggestions  for  the  formation  of  the  best  selection  of  20,  50^ 
or  100  volumes  of  educational  and  reference  books  for  the  use  of 
teachers*);  and  we  shall  be  glad  to  transmit  to  him  for  consideration 
the  opinions  which  practical  educators,  librarians,  and  others  may 
see  fit  to  express  to  ns  on  the  blank  form  issued  for  that  purpose. 

E.   STEIGER  &  CO. 


*)  In  1880,  Prof.  Payne  recommended  the  followiug  List  of  '-Ten  Books  for 
Teachers'": 

1)  Tlie  Cyclopcedia  of  Education.  $5.00.  —  2)  Laurie's  Fnmary  Instruction. 
$1.80.  —  3)  QaicK's  Educational  Reformers.  $2.00.  —  4)  Page's  Theory  and 
Practice.  $1.50.  —  5)  Cdkrie's  Common  School  Education.  $2.40.  —  6)  Donald- 
son's Lectures  on  Education.  $1.40.  —  7)  Bardeen,  Common  School  Law.  10.50.  — 
8)  Calkins' Prima)-)/  Object  Lessons.  $1.25.-9)  Kevssevx,  School  and  Family. 
$1  00.  —  10)  Huntington's  Unconscious  Tuition.   $0.15. 

329 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


NEWCOMB'S 
MATHEMATICAL    COUESE. 

ALGEBRA.  GEOMETRY. 

(Ready.)  (Ready.) 

TRIGONOMETRY.       ANALYTICAL  GEOMETRY 

(In  press.)  (In  preparation.) 

CALCULUS. 

By  8LAION  NEWCOMB,  Prot:  of  Mathematics  U.  S.  Navy. 
Member  of  the  National  Academy,  Corresponding  Member  of  the 
Institute  of  France,  Supt.  American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical 
Almanac,  Author  of  Ne\vcomb"s  Astrouom}-  (American  Science 
Series)  etc.,  etc. 

fi@"  A  copy  of  the  Algebra  or  Geometry  /or  examination  with  vinv 
to  introduction  mailed  post  paid  to  teachers  for  pj  cents. 

GARDINER'S  HISTORIES  OF  ENGLAND, 

EUG&NE'S  FRENCH  GRAMMAR  AND  LESSONS, 

THE  AMERICAN  SCIENCE  SERIES. 

HANDBOOKS  IN  SCIENCE,  LITERATURE,  ART  AND  HISTORY, 

FREEMAN'S  HISTORICAL  COURSE, 

BAIN'S  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

CHAMPLIN'S    YOUNG     FOLKS'    CATECHISM    OF    COMMON 

THINGS,  AND  YOUNG  FOLKS'  ASTRONOMY, 
BOREL'S  GRAMMAIRE  FRANCAISE. 
GASC'S  FRENCH  DICTIONARIES, 
PYLODET'S  FRENCH  COURSE, 
SAUVEURS  M^THODE  NATURELLE. 
WHITNEY'S  GERMAN  COURSE, 
WHITNEY'S  GERMAN  DICTIONARY, 
OTTO'S  GERMAN  AND  FRENCH  COURSES, 
KLEMM'S  LESE-  UND  SPRACHBUCHER, 
HENESS'  NATURLICHE  METHODE, 
STERN'S  STUDIEN  UND  PLAUDEREIEN, 

And  numerous  other  educational  works.    Catalogue  Free. 


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EDUCATIONAL  BOOKS. 
SUPLEE'S  TRENCH  ON  WORDS. 

By  Richard  Chenevix  Trench,  D.D. 

From  the  Latest  Revised  English  Edition.    With  an  Exhaustive  Analysis, 
Additional  Wokds  for  Illustkation,  and  Questions  fob  Examinations. 

By  THOMAS  D.  SUPPLEE. 

1  Vol.  400  pages.     Net  price  $1.00. 
The  advantages  claimed  for  it,  over  all  other  editions,  are  as  follows: 

1.  A  complete  and  exhaustive  analysis  of  the  revised  text  has  been  added. 

2.  A  set  of  questions  has  been  prej)ared,  designed  not  only  to  call  forth  the  facts 
stated  by  the  author,  but  also  to  follow  up  lines  of  thought  suggested  by  him. 

3.  At  the   end  of  each  lecture  a  list  of  words  has  been  added,  illustrating  its 
various  topics,  and  intended  to  encourage  original  research  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

Copies  for  examination  sent  post  paid —  on  receipt  of  15  cents. 


the:  ^^EivEiio  of"  ^  ii^c^il 

Translated  into  English  Verse  (Scott's  Ballad  Metre). 

By  JOHN  CONINGTON,  M.A.,  of  Oxford. 

1  vol.,  crown  8vo,  506  pages.    Retail  price  $2.00.  Price  to  Students  $1.50. 

Just  Published: 

ARMSTRONG'S 

PRIMER  OF  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 

for  School  and  Family  Use. 

With  6  new  and   beautifully  colored  Maps,  from  original  drawings. 
1  vol.     Square  Ifiiuo.     Cloth.     Price  50  cents. 

THE  UNABRIDGED~STUDENT'S  IIALLAM. 

FOR  USE  IN  COLLEGES  AND  SCHOOLS. 

1.  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.     Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.    The  revised 

and  corrected  edition.  2  vols.,  cr.  bvo.  $2.;j().  (J' rice  for  use  as  text-books, 
s^  cents  per  volume.) 

2.  THE    CONSTITUTIONAL    HISTORY    OF  ENGLAND, 

fniin  the  Accession  of  lii-iuy  Vlll.  to  the  death  of  George  11.  liicl'iding  .Mr. 
Hallam's  Supplemental  Volume  of  Revision  up  to  184K.  Indispensable  to 
Students.  Complete  in  2  vols.  cr.  8vo.  $2.50.  (I' rice  for  use  as  text-books, 
83  cents  per  voln.me.) 

3.  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LITERATURE  OF  EUROPE 

ill  the  l,"itli,  liilli,  and  ITtli  CcMituries.  Revised  and  (•(UTected  edition.  Comiil. 
in  2  vols.,  (■!■.  svu.      s'j. .-)().     (  /'rirc  for  h.sc  as  terl-lxinl.-.-i,  s:!  rets  per  vol.) 

L  MAY'S  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND, 

since  the  .\c.-cs-i il Ccoriic  III.,  ITiiO— 18H0.      With  a   mit  Sniiiih-iiientanj 

Cliai>tcr,  iHfiO—lS'Sl.    Hy  Thomas  Ekskine  May.    2  vols.  S:i.r>0.   {  Price  fr 
Students,  $\.]{\  per  col.)   "May"  is  a  continuation  of  and  uniform  witli  Hallam 
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STANDARD  TEXT  BOOKS. 

The  American  Educational  Series. 

This  justly  popular  Series  of  Text-books  is  noted  for  its 
freshness,  completeness,  admirable  gradation,  and  the  beauty  and 
substantial  nature  of  its  manufacture.  It  comprises  a  full  and 
thorough  course  of  study,  from  the  simplest  Primer  to  the  most 
advanced   Mathematical   and  Scientific   work.      Among  which  are: 

Sanders*  Union  Readevs, 

American  Ediicatiotuil  Readers^ 
Sw intones  Siipj^leinenfaru  Readers^ 
SauHton^s  Word-hool^  Series, 
Swinton's  Geograph  ies, 
Rohinson^s  3IatheniaticSf 
KerVs  Gram inars^ 

Webster's  D ietio 1 1 ar ies^ 
Gray's  Botanies, 

Spencer ian  Copy  -Rooks, 
Bryant  &  Stratton's  Book- Keep iny, 
Wi  J  sot  I  "s  Histo  ries, 
Sicinton's  Histories, 

FasqueJ1e*s  French  Coarse, 
Woodbury -s  Genua ii  Coarse, 
Wells'  Science, 

Mliot  &  Storer's  Chemistry, 
Dana  -s  Geology, 

Silliman's  Rhys,  and  Chem., 
White'^s  Industrial  Draunnys, 
And  many  other  well-known  works. 


CATALOGUES  and  Circulars,  descriptive  of  The 
American  Educational  Series  of  Schooi.  and  College  Text- 
Books,    mailed   free  to  any  address. 


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D.  APPLETON  &  CO;S 

EDUCATIONAL   PUBLICATIONS. 


APPLETOJiS'  SCHOOL  READERS,        TUE  MODEL  COPY  BOORS. 


Consisting   of  Five    Book; 
By  WJ£.  T.  UARHIS,  Snpt.  Pnblic  Schools, 


St.   Louis  ;    AXDHEW  J. 
Supt.  of  Instruction,  Cleveland 
MAILKX,   Instructor   in   Elocution,  Yale 

College 


111    six    Numl)cis.      With  Goochiian's 
Slidini^  Copies. 

I,0.;  MARK  ^^  Primary  Copy-Books.  Jlodel  Series, 
with  Wakeman's  Detachable  Sliding 
Copies.     Six  numbers. 


Appletons'  First  Reader.  Small  4to,  90  pp. 
Appletons'  Second  Reader.  12mo,  142  p]i. 
Appletons'  Third  Reader.  I'iino,  214  pp. 
Appletons'  Fourth  Reader.  12mo,  248pp. 
Appletons'  Fifth  Reader.     12iiio,  471  pp. 


APPLETOXS'  GEOGRAPHIES. 

AMERICAN   STANDARD   SERIES. 
Another  Signal   Improvement. 

The  remarkablo  surco.s.s  which  Appletons' 
Readers  have  attaiucd,  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
no  ett'ort  or  expeuso  was  spared  to  make 
them  uot  only  mechanically  superior,  but 
practically  aiid  distinctively  supcriorin  their 
embodiment  of  modern  experiences  in  teach- 
ing, and  of  the  methods  followed  by  the 
most  successful  and  intelligent  education  of 
the  day. 

We  now  offer  a  new  series  of  Geographies, 
in  two  books,  which  will  as  far  excel  all  geo- 
graphical text-books  hitherto  published  aa 
our  Headers  are  in  advance  of  the  old  text- 
books in  Readers. 

THF.    SF.KIKS. 

Appletons'    Elementary  Geography. 

Small  4to,  lUS  page.-i. 

Appletons'   Higher  Geography.    Larpe 
4t(),  128  paufe^. 


RRiiSrS  DRAWING  SERIES. 

Easy  Drawing  Lessons,  for  Kindergarten 
and  Primary  Schools.    Three  part.s. 

Synthetic  Series.  Four  Books  and  Manual. 

Analjrtic  Series.  Four  Books  and  Manual. 

Perspective  Series.  Four  B'ks  and  Manual. 

Advanced  Perspective  and  Shading 
Series.     Four  Books  and  Manual. 

Industrial  (\mrses  in 

Textile  Designs,  Outline  and  Relief 
Designs,  Mechanical  Drawing,  and 
Architectural  Drawing. 


STICKNEYS  LANGUAGE  SERIES. 

Child's  Book  of  Language.  A  Graded 
Series  of  Lessons  and  Blanks,  in  Four 
Numbers.  I.  Stories  in  Pictures;  II. 
Studies  in  Animals;  III.  Studies  in 
Plants;  IV.  Studies  of  Words.  Teach- 
ers' Fditiim. 

Letters  and  Lessons  in  Language.  A 
se(|uel  to  "Tlie  Child's  Book  of  Lan- 
guage." 

These  are  charming  books  for  awakening 
and  develoiiing  thought  and  for  acquiring 
the  fluent  use  of  lnugiia;;e. 


Cornell's  Geographies;  Appletons'  Abithmetics:  Quackenbos's  HisTomEs; 
Grammars,  anu  Rhetoric;  Ballard's  Words,  AVord- Writer,  and  Pieces  to  Speak; 
Primers  of  Science,  History,  and  Liter ati-re;  Youmans's  Botanies  and  Chemistry; 
Morse's  ZooLO(iY;  LeConte's  Geology;  Harkness's  Latin  Series  New  Grammar 
nearly  ready;;  Hadley's  Greek,  etc..  etc.,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  among  the  most 
popular  and  successful  text-books  of  the  day. 

Our  list  embraces  standard  works  representing  every  deiiartmeut  of  study  from 
the  Kindergarten  to  the  University. 

Catalogues,  price  lists,  and  "Educational  Notes"  sent  free  on  application,  and 
the  most  favorable  terms  made  for  first  introduction. 


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NEW  YORK,  BO^^TON,  CHirAnO,  SAX  FRAXCISCO. 


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Four  Valuable   Rooks  for  Teachers. 


SPENCER. 


Education: 
Intellectual,  Moral  and  Physical. 

By  HERBERT  SPENCER, 


Contents:  I 

Moral  Education;  I\ 


AUTHOR  OF  "A  SYSTEM  OF  SYNTHETIC  PHILOSOPHY. 

One  volume,  12mo,  283  pages Price,  Sl.'J.'J. 

What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth?  11.  Intellectual  Education;   III. 
Physical  Education. 


VOLUME  XXV.    ''INTERNATIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  SEHTESr 

Education  as  a  Science. 

By  ALEXANDER   BAIN,   LL.D., 

PROFESSOR    OF    LOGIC    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    ABERDEKN. 

One  volume,  I'Jmo,  453  pages Price,  Si. "5. 

Contents:  I.  Scope  of  the  Science  of  Education;  II.  Bearings  of  Physiology;  III. 
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M/ETZNER'S  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

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gether. Boards  $0.70,  HalfRoan  $0.90. 

CoUeq^iate  Course. 

SCULEGEL'S  German  Grammar  for 

Beginners.     Half  Roan  $1  25. 

SCULEGEL'S  First  Classical  Gertnan 
Reader.  With  Notes  and  Vocabulary. 
Half  Roan  $1.00.  —  Second  Classical 
German  Rrader.  With  Notes  and  Vo- 
cabulary. Half  Roan  $1.50. 
r*   These   Keys  will    bo   snppHed    to 

teacherH  only  upon  their  direct  application 

to  the  publishers,] 


E.  STEIGER  k  CO.,  25  Park  Place.  NEW  YORK 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 

German  in  tJie  Public  Schools. 

The  Ahn-Henn  German  Course  with  its  alternating  exercises 
for  translation  meets  the  expectations  of  the  friends  of  German  in- 
struction, while  at  the  same  time  it  answers  the  objections  of  all  opponents. 

The  Ahn-Henn  books  combine  all  the  qualities  needed  to 
make  the  study  of  German  easy  and  popular,  and  for  this  reason 
the  series  has  been  adopted  for  use  in  the  Public  Schools  of  very  many  of 
our  leading  cities.  No  other  method  enables  School-Boards  to  retain  the 
study  of  German  without  an  accompanying  increase  of  expense  and  no 
other  method  can  present  so  many  acceptable  arguments  in  favor  of 
the  continued  study  of  the  language  in  the    Public  Schools. 

I  prefer  Ahn's  method,  because  it  introduces  the  learner  to  language  before  it 
discourages  him  with  tlie  complicated  difficulties  of  technical  grammar.  This 
method  has  reason  and  nature  on  its  side,  and  is  growing  in  favor  among  progress- 
ive educators.    In 's  books  this  method  seems  to  be  reversed,  and  the  young 

learner  is  precipitated  at  once  into  the  intricacies  of  grammar.  The  exercises  in 
the  Ahn  books  seem  to  me  to  be  far  more  practical  and  satisfactory  than  those 
given  by . 

The  exercises  in  Ahn's  books  in  letter-writing,  business  forms,  advertisements, 
Germaa  script,  etc.,  are  very  valuable.     These  matters  are   almost  entirely  omitted 

in 's  books.     For  these  and  other  reasons  I  decidedly  prefer  the  Ahn  series. 

(J.  M.  B.  Sill,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Detroit,  Mich.) 

We  have  been  using  the  Aum-Henn  German  series  for  some  three  years.  Our 
children  are  doing  excellent  work  in  the  language  by  the  use  of  this  series. 

(W.  W.  Jamieson,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Keokuk,  Iowa.) 

Itgives  me  great  pleasure  to  certify  to  the  uniform  excellence  of  Ahn-Henn's 
French  and  German  text-books  after  a  use  of  them  since  their  first  publication. 
I  recommend  them  unhesitatingly  as  the  best  books  for  class  use. 

(J.  C.  Jones,  Supt.  of  Schools,  East  Saginaw,  Mich.) 

We,  last  year,  began  the  introdnction  of  your  German  series  —  the  Ahn-Henn 

method  —  and  we  are  so  pleased  with  it  that  we  shall,  as  fast  as  we  can  work  out 

the  old  books,  substitute  this.     Thus  far  the  series  has  given  eminent  satisfaction. 

(Chas.  C.  Snydek,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Freeport,  111.) 

We  use  your  Ahn-Henn  series  of  German  Books.  I  consider  it  the  best  course 
for  our  Public  Schools.  (Thos.  W.  Hubbard,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Perrysbnrg,  0.) 

I  desire  to  tell  you  of  my  own  free  will  that  I  have  used  the  Ahn-Henn  German 
Course  over  two  years  and  that  I  consider  it  without  a  rival  as  a  text-book  for 
common  schools.  (Wii.  McK.  Blake,  Supt.  of  Schools,  New  Castle,  Ind.) 

We  are  using  very  successfully  Ahn-Henn's  German  Method,  which  we  prefer 
to  any  other  work  we  have  seen. 

(W.  W.  Sharpe,  Prin.  Orwell  Normal  Institute,  Orwell,  0.) 

We  have  concluded  to  use  Aun's  Germaa  Series  in  the  Mansfield  Normal 
College.  The  books  are  prepared  on  a  rational  basis,  and  merit  a  general  intro- 
duction.   (J.  Praise  Richard,  President  Mansfield  Normal  College,  Mansfield,  0.) 

Many  similar  testimonials  have  been  sent  to  the  Publishers.  More 
significant,  however,  is  the  fact  that  after  several  years'  trial  the  Ahn-Henn 
German  Text  -  books  are  being  used  in  constantly  increasing" 
quantities  in  the  Public  Schools  of  New  York,  Hoboken,  Buffalo, 
Cleveland,  Sandusky,  Detroit,  San  Francisco,  Rochester,  Hartford,  Dubuque, 
Louisville,  Galena,  Davenport,  Kansas  City,  La  Crosse,  Elmira,  Pittsburg, 
Elizabeth,  Newark,  Wheeling,  Worcester,  Indianapolis,  as  also  in  those  of 
hundreds  of  smaller  cities,  other  books  being  discarded  entirely. 


THE  DICTION AKV  OF  EDUCATION  AND  TNSTEUCTION 


STEIGER'S  Latin  Series. 

AHirS  Latin  Grammar.  By  Dr.  V.AHITS  Third  Latin  Book*  (Rules 
Henn.  With  Refereuces  to  the  Exercises  [  and  Exercises  on  Syntax  and  Latin  Com- 
in  the  First.  Seco7ia,3in(l  Third  Latin  Books/  position.)  By  Dr.  P.  Henn.  Boards 
Boards  $0.80:    Cloth  $0.90.  ;      $0.80;    Cloth    $0.90. 

AHN'S  Latin  Wall  Charts.  By  'ii^'-' aHN-HENITS  First  Latin  Reader. 
V.  Henn.  22  Plates,  iii  Sheets  $1.50:  {^Ue  septem  regibus  Romanorum,  iTon\-Li\\.) 
mounted  on  22  Boards  $iJ.OO.  |     with  Notes,  Vocabulary,   and   Refereuces. 

AHN'S  First  Latin   Book.*     (Rules       To  be  used  with  the   Second  Latin  Book.) 

aud  Exercises  mainly  ou  Nominal  Inflec-      Boards    $0.70;   Cloth  $0.80. 

tion.)    By  Dr.  P.  Henn.     Boards  $0.00::  ^  __^^  ^_.^,^,^,„r.  jt    *,•  ,  t>^„^«^ 

r'i,,th    «(i7{i  \AHN-HENNSSecondLatia Reader- 

^ri^^f--"      •      ^  r     *■      D«^7,«    /•R„i<.J     With    Notes  aud  l{eter(.'Uces.     (To   be  used 

AHN'S  Second  Latin  Book*   'Rules  j^^^j.      j^     .^^^^ 

and  Exercises   mainly  on    \erbal   lunec-       •>-"••" 

tion.)    By  Dr.  P.  Henn.     Boards   $0.80;| ' 

Cloth  $0.90.  *  The  Keys  to  the  I'ifst  Latin  Book, 

AHN'S  Latin  Vocabulary  for  Be-  Second  Latin  Book,  and  Third  Latin 
gianers.  M'iliodiral  and  Etymological,  ^ook  intended  as  aids  in  dictation  exer- 
Willi    a    Collfj-liDii    of  Latin   I'rovcjbx  anil    .  .  -n    i       ,     ,,,.ii„,i   »„   «„.w.i.„nu 

Qnotalions.  By  Dr.  P.  Henn.  (To  be,"^'^^'  ^*'--  ^^"  ^'^  supplied  to  teachers 
used  with  the  Fird  aud  .Second  Latin  only  upon  their  direct  application  to  the 
Books.;   Boards  $0.00;    Cloth  $0.70.  [publishers. 

^^^  Thorough  Study  of  Latin  made  easy.  "'^^ 

M  1st  Latin  p;rammars  now  iu  u-ie  task  the  beginner  with  a  mass  of  grammatical 
detail  which  is  w.n-se  than  usaless,  a  bar  to  progress  all  the  morc^  irritating'  because  un- 
necessary. Hence  the  wide-si)rc:id  demand  for  a  grammar  tltat  rontaiii.i  evertj  tliiutf 
of  itnporlanee  tov  all  learners,  inclu  bug  those  who  contemplate  a  collegiate  course  of 
study,  while  it  stadiou.vli/  otnits  niiilters  of  disputed  usaf/e,  the  study  of  which 
will  offer  no  cUfficulty  wha'tever  to  thj  college-student,  to  whom  tbey  properly  belong 

.4.H\'S  Latin  Orannniir  and  the  other  books  of  this  Latin  Coarse  are  the  reali" 
zatiou  of  this  view,  and  particular  attention  is  invited  to  the  following  distinctive 
features: 

1.  The  best  Orthography  is  exhibited:  Quantity  is  marked  throughout,  besides 
Syllablflcatioii  and  Accent  in  paradigms. 

2.  Etymolojiy  is  carefully  treated.  Without  being  cumbersome,  this  Coil)'.""-  is 
believed  to  be  more  full  aud  complete,  especially  iu  the  illustrative  examples  in 
Declension  aud  Conjugation  than  any  other  Latin  grammar  now  iu  use.  Ou  thcBe 
points  a  comparison  will  show  how  simple,   practical,  and  dear  it  is. 

3.  The  Derivative  Kndlngs  (WorU-formatlon)  are  thoroughly  illustrated  and 
classified. 

4.  Syntax  is  logically  treated  iu  every  part.  Though  brief,  it  is  very  comprehensive 
and  so  clear  in  its  statements  that  this  subject,  generally  considered  so  difficult,  is  easily 
understood.  The  construction  ofPrepositious,  commonly  left  to  the  Dictiouary,  receives 
here,  for  the  flrst  time,  tha  attention  that  is  its  due  in  a  school  grammar. 

r>.  The  clear  and  compendious  description  of  the  Metres,  aud  especially  the  full 
Alphabetical  Inde.v  of  Subjects  are  very  important. 

6  Thi>  usefulness  of  these  books  is  increased  by  Judicious  typographical  arrange- 
ment. 

.4II.VS  Latin  Coarse  furuisUes  an  excellent  preparation  to  any  of  the  Latin 
grammars  used  at  College,  the  difficulties  in  which  will  be  mastered  all  the  better 
wliiM)  the  groundwork  has  been  securely  learned  from  the  AIIX  Coame. 

Particular  attention  is  invited  to  the  Wall  Charts  and  the  Voeabalanj  which  are 
unique,  aud  may  bo  used  advautageouslv  also  iu  connection  with  any  other  Latiu 
Course.  The  rirM,  Second,  aud  Third  Latin  Books  offer  ai.  abundance  of  Exercises 
for  double  translation,  of  which  the  teacher  may  use  all,  or  a  portion  only,  as  his  .judg- 
ment or  other  circumstances  may  dictate.  The  Vocabularies  iu  these  three  books  contain 
every  Latin  aud  English  word  occurring  iu  the  exercises.  The  Headers  furnish  the 
best    classic  Latin. 

The  books  are  printed  in  large,  clear  type,  and  issued  in  superior  style,  at  low 
prices.  Favorable  terms  for  introduction  and  exchange.  Specimen  copies  sent  to 
teachers  upon  receipt  of  half  the  advertised  price. 

Ji.  STKIGER  &  CO.,  25  Park  Place,  NKW  YORK 


THE  DICTIONAKY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


Samples  of  Type  used  in  the  AHN-HENN  Latin  Course. 

467.  All  words  which  may  be  grouped  into  one 
family  so  as  to  associato  their  meaning  are  said  to 
have  a  common  ground-form  or  Root.     Thus: 

acuo,  -ere,  to  whet  acus,  -us,  a  needle 

acutus,  -a,  -um,  sTiari^  acer,  -ris,  -re,  sharp 

acuaieu,  -Tms,  aruteness  acerbus,  -a,  -um,  shaiy 

acies,  -ei,  an  edge  acidus,  -&,  -um,  sour 

may  all  be  retraced  to  the  ROOT  AC. 

468.  The  Stem  must  be  distmguished  from  the  Root.  The 
stem  is  that  part  of  the  word  which  remains  after  taking  away  the 
Inflections,  as:  acu-ere,  to  lohet,  stem  acu. .  Again,  the  root  is  that 
pai't  of  the  word  which  remains  after  taking  away  the  Suffix;  thus 
the  verb-stem  acu  belongs  to  the  root  AC. 


927.    Horace  uses  the  Hexameter  iu  his  Epistles  and  Satires. 
The  Odes  include  nineteen  varieties  of  strophe,  viz. : 
1.    Alcaic  Strophe,  consisting  of: 

(  ^.  .  /X     ,X 
Two  Greater  Alcaics  - 


-  ^  —  —  I 


w  I-'  LL  u   y 


1^1 


One  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  anacrusis  zi  :  L  ^  L 
One  Lesser  Alcaic  L  \j  \j  \  L  \j  ^  \  L 

Justum  et  tenacem  propositi  vin'ini 
Non  cx\\um  ardor  prava  jubentium 
Non  vultus  instantis  tyranni 
Mente  quatit  solida  neqwe  Auster. 


t    r-. 


9-i3.  10 


_  w  _  u 


From  Vocabularies  to  Third  Latin  Bonk: 

a,  ab  (with  abl.),//-om,  by 
abditus,  -a,  -um,  lad 
abdomen,  -inis  (n.),  the  abdomen 
al)duco,  abduxi,  abductum,  al)- 
dficere,  to  rarrii an-ay;  to  take 
aberro,  -avi,  -atum,  -are,  to  go 
abhinc,  ago  [asiray 


the  abdomen,  abdomen 

to  abet,  adjuvare 

ability,  facultas 

to  be  able,  posse,  quire;  not  to  he 

able,  uequire 
an  abode,  domicilium 


From  Index  to  Latin  Grammar. 

ad  venire,  with  in  &  ace,  690 
adventu,  abl.  of  time,  G73 
Adverbial  accusative,  580;  phra- 
ses, 431 
Adverbs,  32,  424-446;  derivation 
of,  42.5-434;   from  adjectives  of 
the  1st  &  2d  decl.,  425;  of  the  3d 
dec!.,  426;  of  time,  437;  of  man- 
nej;  438;    of  order,  242;    nu- 
meral, 241;  of  place,  436;  used 
as  prepositions,  436;  compari- 
son, 440-442;  with  gen.,  566.  6; 
correlative,  439;  position,  562 
Adversative  conjunctions,  451,853 


E.  STEIGER  &  CO.,  25  Park  Place,  NEW  YORK 


THE  DICTIONAEY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTKUCTION 


German^  French^  and  Latin  Uictlonaries. 

If,  O.  KhvclVs  New  and  Complete  Dictionary 
of  the  German  and  Englisk  Languages.  Re- 
modelled and  greatly  improved.  (^^  ith  tbe 
pronunciation  accoriliut^  to  the  muthodol 
J.  E.  Worcester.)  2  parts  iu  1  vol.  l:2mo 
Half  Morocfo,  ji2.5U 

!■'.  E.  Feller.  New  Pocket  Dictionary, English 
and  German,  to  ivhich  is  added  a  Pocket  Com 
panion  for  Travellers,  containing  a  Collection 
of  Conversations,  etc.  2  parts  in  1  vol.  a^mo 
Cloth,  $1.10 

The  same,  bound  in  2  vols.  Cloth,  $1.40 

F.  and  «/.  O.  Fluegcl,  Practical  Dictionary 
0/  the  English  and  German  Languages.  2 
vols.     8vo.     Hall'  Morocco,  $0.45 

Clir,  F.  Gi'leb.  Dictionary  of  the  English 
and  German  Languages,  to  which  is  added  a 
Synop.'iis  of  English  words  differently  pro- 
nounced by  different  Orthocpists.  2  vols.  8vo. 
Half  Morocco,  $7.00 

<T.  It.  Ktilt.tvhtiiidt.  New  complete  Die- 
Urinary  of  the  English  and  GermanLanguages. 
With  Ijerman  pronunciacion  of  the  En- 
glish words  —  for  Gormaus.)  2  parts  in  1 
vol.    8vo.   Half  Morocco,  $3.50 

F.  Koeliler.  English-German  and  German- 
English  Dictionary.  (With  German  pronun- 
ciation of  the  English  words.)  2  parts  iu  1 
vol.  8vo.   Half  Morocco,  $2.95 

F.  Koeliler,  Pocket  Dictionary  of  the  German 
aiul  English  Languages.  2  parts  iu  1  vol. 
24mo.     Cloth,  $0.75 

Koeliler  and  IVilter'a  New  German-English 
and  English  -  German  Pocket  Dictionary. 
(With  English  pronunciation  of  the  Ger- 
man words.)  2  parts  in  1  vol.  24mo.  Half 
Koan,  $1.50 

J.  C.  Oelil.ichlt'iger.  EnglishGerm,an  and 
German-English  Pocket  Dictionary.  (With 
English  pronunciation  of  the  German 
■words.)  2  ijarts  iu  1  vol.  24mo.  Half 
Uoan,  $1.50 

The  same.  (With  German  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  Kngli.ih  words  )     2   parts  iu  I  

vol.     24uio.     Half  Koan,  $1.50  Chas.  AhUioh's  Lalin-Knglish  and  English- 

.1.  F.  L.  Tafel  and  L.  ir.  Tofcl.  New  En-^  Latin  Dictionary.  2  parts  in  1  vol.  12mo. 
glish-German  and  German-English  Pocket  Sheep.  Net  $2.50  (including  Postage  $2.92) 
Dictionari/.  With  pronunciation  of  the  Clias.  Authon's  Latin-English  Dictionary. 
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in  1  vol.     24mo.   Half  Koan,  $1.50  age  $2.40) 

Tliieinr-Preiisser.  A  Netv  and  Cn,nplete  -'^  ^*'"' ^'''tionary  of  the  Latin  and  English 
Critical  Dictionary  of  the  English  and  Ger-       Languages.      With  an    Appendix  of   Latin 


F.  F.  Feller.  New  English  and  French  Pocket 
Dictionary.  2  parts  in  1  vol,  32mo.  Cloth, 
$0.85 

Fleming  and  Xibbins,  Large  English- 
French  and  French-English  DicUonary,  4to 
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'H'tti.  James  and  Mole.  Dictionary  of  the 
English  and  French  Languages.  2  parts  in  1 
vol.     IGmo.     Half  Morocco,  $2.60 

Spiers  and  Surenne's  Complete  French  and 
English, and  English  and  French  Dictionary. 
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Spiers  and  Siireitne's  Standard  J'ronounc- 
ing  Dictionary  of  the  Freiich  and  Engli.^k 
Languages.  2  i)arts  in  1  vol.  12mo.  Half 
Koan,  $2.25 

J.  E.  Wtssely.  French- English  and  English- 
French  Pocket  Dictionary.  2  jjarts  in  1  vol. 
16  mo.  Cloth,  $0.85 

A  Comitlete  Dictionari/,  English,  German, 
French,  for  tlie  Use  of  the  three  Nations.  3 
parts  in  1  vol.     8vo.     Half  Morocco,  $3.30 

F.  K.  Feller.  New  Pocket  Dictionary,  En- 
glish, German,  and  French,  containing  all 
the  Words  indi.vpensable  in  daily  Conversely 
lion:  admirably  aditjilidfor  theUse  of  Travel- 
lers.    3  vols      Clolh,  $1.90 

Pocket  Dictionari/  of  Technical  Terms 
used  in  Arts  and  Manufactures.  Abridged 
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the  Addition  of  Coniinerci.'il  Terms.  3  vols. 
16mo.     Paper,  S3.00;    Half  Morocco,  $t).()0 

Technological  Dictionary  in  the  English, 
German,  and  French  Languages.  Containing 
about  76,000  teclinical  terms  and  locutions 
employed  in  Arts,  Trades,  and  Industry  in 
general.  By  A.  Tolhausen.  3  vols.  12mo. 
Paper,  $8.80;  Half  Morocco  $12.40 

Each  volume  sold  seiiarately.     Paper,  @ 
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man  Languages.  (With  pronunciation  of 
the  English  words  )  2  parts  in  1  vol  8vo  i 
Half  Morocco,  $4.25 
./.  /•;.  We.tseUi.  German- English  and  English 
German  Pocket  Dictionary.  2  parts  in  1  vol. 
16mo.  Cloth,  $0.85 


Geographical.  Historical,  and  Mytholog- 
ical Proper  Names.     IGnio.   Cloth,  $0.85 

Kaltsclnnidt's  Dictionary,  English-Latin 
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Wtn.  Smith's  English-  Latin  Dictionary.  To 
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Names.  8vo.  Sheep.  Net  $4.40  ^including 
Postage  $4.67)      


For  Dictionaries  of  the  German  Language 
by   Eberhaud,   Grimm,  Heyse,  Hoffmann, 
Petri.  Sanders,  Weber,   Weigand,  Wenig, 
and  others  see  Steiokb's  Catalogue  "German      Any  of  these  Dictionaries  will  be  mailed 
Language."  upon  receipt  of  price. 


E.  STEIGER  X'  CO.,  25  Park  Place,  NEW  YORK 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTKUCTION 

THE   CYCLOPEDIA   OF   EDUCATION: 

A  DICTIONARY  OF  INFORMATION 

FOR  THE  USE  OP 
TEACHERS,  SCHOOL  OFFICERS,  PARENTS,  AND  OTHERS. 

This  important  work,  which  was  first  issued  ia  1877  after  three  years 
of  laborious  and  careful  preparation,  has  secured  an  acknowledged  position 
as  the  one  standard  educational  authority  in  the  English  language. 

'J'he  simple  fact  that  this  is  the  first  and  only  publication  of  its 
kind  in  English  literature,  sufficiently  indicates  the  difficulty  of  its 
preparation.  It  is  due  to  the  fortunate  association  of  the  editors.  Mr. 
Henry  Kiddle  and  Frof.  Alex.  J.  Schem,  who  were  pre-eminently 
fitted  for  this  work,  and  regarded  it  truly  as  a  labor  of  love,  that  this 
Cijclopcedin  at  once  gained  universal  recognition  —  not  only  in  this 
country  but  also  ia  Europe,  and  notably  at  the  Exposition  Universelle 
at  Paris,  1878,  where  it  was  decreed  a  Medal,  while  the  honorary  degree 
of  Officier  d'Academie  was  awarded  to  Mr.  Kiddle  by  the  University  of 
France. 

Each  year  has  served  to  give  the  Ctfcloijfvdia  still  greater  promi- 
nence and  to  strengthen  the  position  it  has  attained.  Official  endorse- 
ments have  been  added  to  private  and  public  recommendations,  which  are 
all  the  more  indicative  of  the  real  merit  of  the  work,  as  they  are  the  re- 
sult of  a  careful  study  and  constant  use  of  the  Cyclopcedia  as  an  educa- 
tional help.  From  present  indications  it  is  confidently  expected  that,  tu 
time,  a  copy  of  the  Cyclopcedia  of  Education  will  be  purchased 
by  or  for  each  teacher,  or  that  one  at  least  will  be  provided  for  every 
school  building  in  the  United  States. 

"No  professional  teacher  can  afford  to  be  witliont  it." 

{Pennsylvania  School  Journal.) 
"  Such  a  work  as  this  is  the  living  educator ;  it  will  do  for  general  education 
what  the  dictionary  does  for  the  language.    It  is  a  work  which  for  manj'  years  will 
lead  and  control  our  public  and  private  schools."  ( N.  Y.  Daily  Times.) 

"  The  facts  are  there  in  wonderful  fullness;  but  thoughts,  opinions,  and  sug- 
gestions are  there  also,  and  the  critic  tries  in  vain  to  strike  some  educational  theme 
upon  which  no  light  is  thrown  in  the  compact  pages  of  the  Cyclopcedia." 

(Brooklyn  Times.) 

''  The  work  is  a  monument  no  less  of  the  publisher's  enterprise  than  of  the 
talent  and  perseverance  of  its  editors."  (Philadelphia  Inquirer.) 

"  The  work  ought  to,  as  of  course  it  will,  find  a  place  on  the  shelves  of  every 
public  school  and  library  in  the  land.    We  wish  that  some  of  our  generous  laymen 
would  provide  a  copy  for  each  of  our  educational  institutions,  for  it  is  simply  in- 
valuable." ( Christian  Leader.) 
"  The  Cyclopcedia  of  Education  should  be  in  everv  library." 

{Popular  /Science  Monthly.) 
"  Indispensable  to  every  class  of  book  buyers  and  book  readers." 

{Christian  Standard.) 
"  It  has  a  living  interest  to  persons  in  every  walk  of  life." 

{St.  Louis  Bepublican.) 


THE  DICTIONABY  OF  EDUCATION  AXD  INSTlKTCriOX 

"  This  i3  a  magnificent  book  in  every  respect  —  in  the  value  and  accuracy  of 
the  information  it  contains,  its  substantial  binding,  fine  calendered  paper,  and 
elegant,  clear  typography.  The  external  appearance  of  the  work  is  liighly  credit- 
able to  that  careful  and  enterprising  publisher,  E.  Steiger  of  Now  York." 

( Teachers'  Journal. ) 

"  Nearly  the  whole  nation  is  engaged  in  the  cause  of  education,  and  has  to 

rejoice  in  the  publication  of  a  work  like  this  Cyclopa'dia We  regard  it  as  a 

treasure  to  our  schools  and  fauiilies,  and  we  congratulate  Mr.  Steigev  upon   his 
enterprise  and  success.     It  must  have  a  large  sale."'  (The  Lihrury  Table.) 

■'  We  have  a  very  strong  conviction  that  no  volume  of  equal  value  to  the  cause 
of  education  has  ever  been  produced  in  the  Knglish  language.  If  there  be  a 
teacher  or  school-officer  in  the  land,  who  is  honcuforth  ignorant  upon  any  sub- 
ject pertai:iing  to  his  work,  he  or  she  will  be  without  a  justifiable  excuse.  The 
iutoruiation  needed  is  compressed  within  the  covers  of  this  book,  and  the  book  it- 
self can  be  had  at  a  price  that  is  within  the  means  of  every  person  lit  to  be  en- 
trusted with  the  responsibilities  of  a  school,  or  a  system  of  schools.  It  shouhl 
become  a  text-book  in  normal  schools,  and  a  reference-book  in  every  family  \\liere 
there  are  children  to  be  educated,  or  parents  to  learn  their  duties  in  connection 
therewith."  (The  Educational  Weekly.) 

"  The  work  is  altogether  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  contribution  to  the 
Science  of  Kducation  which  has  yet  appeared  in  our  language.  The  English 
teacher,  as  well  as  the  American,  will  find  in  il  a  store-house  of  compact  and 
well  ordered  information  on  an  immense  variety  of  educaiional  toi)ics  and  there 
are  few  subjects  pertaining  to  hi?  work  on  whiih  he  will  not  find  Bonie  light 
thrown,  and  few  points  in  practical  teaching  on  which  he  will  not  discover  some- 
thing worth  consulting  in  its  pages."  (The  Educatlnnal  Times.  London.) 

"  America  has  done  what  Britain  ought  long  ago  to  have  accomplished.  It 
has  added  to  the  scholastic  library  the  Cyclopadia  of  Education.'' 

i'llie  t^chool,  London.) 

"  The  first  Cyclopiedia  of  Education  published  in  the  English  language,  con- 
structed after  careful  exaininatiou  of  all  cyclopicdias  and  histories  of  education, 
besides  general  cyclop.edi.is,  etc.,  in  English  and  oilier  languages,  lis  design  is  to 
be  comprehensive  and  complete,  within  a  moderate  com[)ass;  thai  like  a  dictionary, 
it  should  be  on  every  teacher's  desk  and,  while  supplymg  information  should  also 
stimnlate  the  pursuit  of  it. . .  .To  sum  up,  many  subjects  are  dealt  with  which  will 
be  found  treated  in  the  ordinary  works  of  refen  nee,  but  here  they  are  taken 
from  the  educational  point  of  vieuj.  The  teacher  luis  in  one  moderate-sized 
volume  matter  of  a  special  character,  wliicli,  being  buried,  as  it  were,  in  bulky 
works  of  reference  and  in  the  languages  of  foreign  countries,  has,  until  now, 
been  out  of  most  persons' reach."  (The  Pxihli^hers'  Cii'cular,  London.) 

"  I  have  placed  it  at  the  head  of  my  list  of  '  Valuable  Books  for  Teachers '." 
(A.  B.  Lemmok,  State  Supt.  of  I'ublic  Instruction,  Kansas.) 

"  In  no  other  work  is  so  much  useful  information  comprised  in  such  a  convenient 
form."  (Lkon.  Tkousdali-;,  State  Supt.  of  Public  Schools.  Tennessee.) 

"  The  Cyclopo'dia  of  Education  is  a  scholarly  and  valuable  work  which  de- 
serves a  place  in  the  library  of  every  educator  and  every  schnol." 

(B.  G.  NoKTiiKof,  Seck'tary  State  Board  of  Education,  Connecticut.) 

"1  find  it  singularly  accurate  and  very  comprehensive  in  both  the  range  and 
treatment  of  subjects.  1  wish  it  could  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher  in 
Kentucky."     ( H.  .V.  M.  Hendkkson,  State  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  Kentucky.) 

"  The  book  is  in  every  way  an  lionor  to  the  profession.  It  will  make  its 
pla-e,  for,  like  the  pioneer  edition  of  Webster's  Unabridged,  'it  comes  to  stay'." 
(.r.  P.  WicKEiisiiAM,  State  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  Pennsylvania.) 
"  I  take  great  pleasure  in  commending  the  Cyclnpirdia  of  Education  as  a 
very  valuable  work  to  Educators  and  to  all  persons  interested  in  the  work  of 
Edir'ation.  The  information  which  it  contains  is  not  ordinarily  accessible  in 
any  other  form.  The  work  is  in  constant  use  in  my  own  oflice  and  will,  I  hope, 
have  a  wide  circulation." 

(Wm.  C,  Whitford,  State  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  Wiscouaiu.^ 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 

"I  hope  tlie  year  1878  will  find  your  excellent  Cydopcedia  introduced  into 
our  schools.  I  do  not  see  how  it  could  be  improved  and  it,  certainly,  fills  a  great 
want."  (E.  S.  Carr,  State  Supt.  of  Public  Instruction,  California.) 

"We,  the  undersigned.  Teachers  of  Eandolph  County,  Ind.,  after  a  practical 
test  of  the  Cydopcedia  of  Education,  do  most  heartily  recommend  it  to  out- 
fellow  teachers  as  a  work  of  superior  merit.  We  have  never  referred  to  it  in 
vain  for  information  upon  any  subject  connected  with  our  work  in  the  school- 
room, literary  meeting,  or  township  institute.  Indeed,  we  have  found  it  a 
complete  library  in  one  volume.  Broad  in  its  compass,  philosophic  in  its  ar- 
rangement, authentic  in  its  data,  and  unsurpassed  in  its  mechanical  finish,  it 
comes  as  a  strong  stay  and  support  to  the  weary  but  zealous  teacher." 

J.  M.  Branson  —  A.  Gillispie  —  A.  Canfield  —  J.   L.  Mills  —  W.  W. 

Fowler  —  S.  P.  Glunt  —  0.  L.  Harbour  —  T.  S.  Spence  —  J.  W.  Wills  — 

W.  T.  Davis  —  M.  C.  Gaffev  —  Fremont  Garrett  —  D.  S.  Graham  — H.  D. 

Good  — 0.  P.  McCabe— D.  W.  Mote  — A.  Gaddis  — C.  H.  Allen— J.  W. 

Denney. 

"  In  looking  through  the  Cydopcedia  I  have  been  much  pleased  in  noticing 
the  amount  of  valuable  and  interesting  information  contained  therein  and  have 
so  expressed  myself  to  our  Brothers  and  to  others  as  occasion  presented." 

(Brother'PAtTLiAN,  Provincial  Visitor  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools, 
in  the  United  States.) 

"  The  Cyclopaedia  of  Education  is  a  most  valued  and  valuable  book,  a  real 
Treasury  of  Knowledge  and  has  been  in  constant  requisition  since  it  arrived. 
In  this  superficial  age  when  the  teacher's  office  and  labors  are  so  little  under- 
stood, the  Cydopcedia  is  indeed  a  most  useful  and  necessary  work." 

(Sister  Lucina,  Superior  of  St.  Vincent's  Academy,  St.  Louis,  Mo.) 

"  The  Cydopcedia  of  Education  having  been  my  handbook  for  the  last  year, 
I  am  prepared  to  speak  cordially  of  its  merits. 

No  teacher  of  to-day  has  a  right  to  gain  all  his  professional  experience  by 
blundering,  isolated  experiments  upon  the  minds  placed  in  his  care.  It  is  his 
duty  to  seek  of  the  past  at  least  three  things:  what  has  been  thought,  —  what 
has"  been  planned  and  attempted,  —  wlmt  has  been  the  result  of  experiment. 
The  Cydopcedia  has  never  failed  to  answer  these  questions  and  I  have  often 
been  surprised  to  find  that  which  I  had  read  a  volume  to  learn,  clearly  and 
systematically  stated  here  upon  a  single  page. 

This  work  should  be  the  corner-stone  of  every  teacher's  professional  library, 
while  no  man  should  undertake  the  responsible  duties  of  a  school  officer  without 
having  thoughtfully  studied  the  leading  articles." 

(G.  S.  Albee,  President  State  Normal  School,  Oshkosh,  Wis.) 


Agreeing  with  the  above  and  with  hundreds  of  similar  opinions 
of  the  highest  American  and  foreign  authorities,  the  Educational  Weekly 
(November,  1880),  the  School  Bulletin  (December,  1880) ,  and  other  periodi- 
cals have  recommended  the  Cydopcedia  of  Education  as  tlie  very  lirst 
in  a  List  of  "Ten  Books  for  Teachers"  which  List  was,  moreover,  formed 
by  a  selection  from  more  than  200  educational  works.  •'■^ 

The  Cydopcedia  of  Education  is  issued  in  one  large  octavo  vol- 
ume of  about  900  pages,  in  the  styles  and  at  the  prices  which  follow,  viz. : 
In  paper  Cover,  uncut  edges  $4.00  (also  in  4  divisions  at  $1.00  each);  bound 
in  Cloth  $5.00  —  and  uniform  with  the  volumes  of  Appletons  American 
Cydopcedia,  in  Library  Leather  $6.00;  in  Half  Morocco  $7.00;  in  Half  Rus- 
sia, extra  gilt  $8.00;  in  Full  Morocco,  or  Full  Russia,  with  gilt  edges  $10.00. 


This  work  will  be  forwarded  promptly   upon  receipt   of  price. 
E.  STEIGER  &  CO.,  25  Park  Place,  NEW  YORK. 


THE  DICTIONARY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 


Steiger's  Free  Educational  Bureau 

has  been  established  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  Teachers  and  Kindergartners 
in  their  efforts  to  obtain  positions,  saving  them,  however,  the  usual 
♦Rcjfistration  Fee'  and  the  percentage  vipon  their  sal- 
aries which  it  is  customary  to  pay  — when  engaged  —  to  the  Agent  or 
person  through  whom  the  position  has  been  obtained. 

The  organization  of  this  Free  Educational  Bureau  was  intended  to 
be  but  another  step  in  the  series  of  services  which  it  is  Mr.  Steiger's  desire 
to  render  in  behalf  of  the  interests  of  Education,  and  the  very  general  manner 
in  which  Teachers  as  well  as  Principals,  and  also  Parents,  have  availed  them- 
selves of  the  facilities  thus  offered,  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  need  of  an 
Establishment  conducted  on  such  principles;  its  prompt  efficiency  has  been 
fully  acknowledgetl,  and  is  being  gratefully  appreciated  and  remembered. 
But  while  Mr.  Hteiger  takes  pleasure  in  thus  oflering  his  aid,  he  trusts,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  he  will  be  saved  \;unccessary  labor,  and  that  neither 
his  own  nor  his  assistants'  time  will  be  occupied  iu  attending  to  personal 
calls.  A  clearly-written  statement  setting  forth  what  is  desired  by,  and  what 
are  the  qualifications  of,  the  applicant  is,  in,most  cases,  the  best  introduction, 
and  of  more  real  value  than  a  personal  interview  and  a  verbal  application. 

The  Application  Forms  (with  transcripts  of  testimonials  and  photo- 
graph attached)  are  filed  in  the  Office  of  Steiger's  Free  Educational 
Bureau,  and  Principals  of  Educational  Institutions,  upon  calling,  are  given 
access  to  these  files,  after  an  inspection  of  which  they  will  be  able  to  make 
their  selection,  to  enter  into  direct  communication  with  applicants,  and  to 
conclude  arrangements  with  them  —  without  incurring  any  monetary  obliga- 
tion to  Mr.  Steioer. 

On  the  other  hand,  Principals  residing  at  a  distance,  who  can  not  person- 
ally inspect  the  files,  should  indicate  upon  the  IMauk  Forms  furnished  for 
that  purpose,  what  they  expect  from  the  Assistant  they  wish  to  engage. 
Reference  will  then  be  made  to  the  files,  and  the  names  of  such  applicants  as 
seem  best  suited  for  the  position,  will  be  sent  to  the  Principal,  who  is  thus 
placed  in  direct  communication  with  available  Teachers,  and  can  efl'ect  the 
desired  arrangement  without  other  intervention. 

In  consequence  of  the  extensive  information  in  regard  to  nearl}'  all  the 
Schools  and  Educational  Institutions  of  this  country,  and  of  Canada,  which 
is  in  the  possession  of  this  Free  Educational  Bureau — in  the  form  of 
circulars,  catalogues,  reports,  and  sjiecial  jxarticulavs  —  Mr.  Steigek  is  enabled 
to  offer  advice  resi)ecting  the  choice  of  schools  for  the  education  of  children. 
Information  can  also  be  given  concerning  the  Uuiversities,  and  the  leading 
High,  Special,  and  Private  Schools  of  Europe. 

Parents  and  Guardians  who  wish  to  avail  themselves  of  the  facilities 
offered  by  this  Bureau  for  the  selection  of  a  Tutor  or  Governess  for  hon^e 
instruction  will  be  accommodated  in  the  same  manner  as  Principals.  The 
r.lank  Forms  furnished  should  be  carefully  filled  out  with  a  distinct  state- 
ment of  the  qualifications  which  are  considered  necessary  and  the  nature  of 
the  sen'ice  desired.  Upon  the  receipt  of  such  application,  Mr.  Steioer  will 
examine  the  files  of  the  Bureau  and  communicate  a  select  list  of  names  to 
each  inquirer.  The  concluding  arrangements  will,  however,  bo  left  entirely 
to  the  Parents  or  Guardians  themselves. 


E.  STEIGER,  25  Park  Place,  NEW  YORK. 


THE  DIOTIONAKY  OF  EDUCATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 

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